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BANCROFT 
LIBRARY 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


International  Geographical 
History  of  the  World 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  FLAT  GLOBE  IS  PRINTED  UPON  A  CIRCULAR  DISK,  28 
INCHES  IN  DIAMETER,  ONE  COMPLETE  HEMISPHERE  ON  EACH  SIDE;  THUS  PRE- 
SERVING THE  CO-RELATION  OF  THE  WHOLE  EARTH'S  SURFACE  AND  OF  LATITUDE 
AND  LONGITUDE  AROUND  THE  ENTIRE  WORLD.  THESE  TWO  TWENTIETH  CEN- 
TURY PRODUCTIONS  COMPRISE  TOGETHER  A  NEW,  UP-TO-DATE,  CORRECT  AND 
SUPERIOR  SYSTEM  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  REVIEW  AND  REFERENCE. 

Xu>~w  |  §  0    fe>  - 

Edited  by  ROBERT  E.  PEART,  President  American  Geographical  Society 

AND   PRESIDENT   EIGHTH   INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC    CONGRESS 
COPYRIGHT  1901-1905  BY 

INTERNATIONAL  GLOBE  CO. 

NEW     YORK     CITY,    U.    S.    A. 


$250.00  Globe  Value,  Price  $5.00 

MMMaMM«MMMB>«M*MMBWMM>«MM*l 

Knowledge  is  Power.         The   Well-Informed  are   the   Wise   and  Successful 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C., 
To  THE  PUBLIC: 

Every  man,  woman  and  child  should  have  a  correct  geographical 
knowledge  of  the  world  upon  which  we  live. 

The  International  Flat  Globe,  illustrating  the  world- 
continents,  countries,  islands  and  waters — and  International 
Geographical  History,  explaining  and  describing  it,  comprise 
together  a  new,  accurate,  valuable  and  up-to-date  system  of  geograph- 
ical review  and  reference,  at  so  low  a  price  that  every  one  should  have 
them;  they  should  be  in  every  home,  school,  office,  library  and  place  of 
business.  They  form  the  most  complete  compilation  of 
geographical  intelligence  and  information  yet  published  at 
the  price. 

The  International  Globe  and  Geographical  History 
are  easily  understood  and  will  interest  and  benefit  every  individual, 
from  a  child  of  six  to  a  man  or  woman  of  mature  years. 


President  American  Geographical  Society 


*l  It  pictures  the  world  in  large  size  (28  inches  in  diameter)  at  a  glance.      An  old  style  Ball  Globe  the 
same  size  costs  over  $250.00.       This   Globe   and    History    ( two   parts )    only  $5.00. 

The  only  value  of  a  globe  is  the  intelligence  and  information  it  contains. 

1  It  gives  th,e  best  and  most  satisfactory  presentation  of  the  whole  world  ever  produced,  at  so  low  a  price  that 

everybody  can  have  one. 

f  It  gives  a  full  and  unobstructed  view  of  each  hemisphere,  the  north  pole  up,  the  south  pole  down ;  to  see  the 

lower  halves  of  the  Hemispheres  you  do  not  have  to  turn  thejearth  upside  down  in  a  distorted  position  as  you 

do  in  the  old  style  globe. 

<ff  It  is  not  heavy,  cumbersome 

f  It  hangs  flat  against  the  wal 

ornament  that  delights  the  eye 

IF  It  can  be  used  as  it  hangs  u 

a  table  or  in  one's  lap  when  r,  PRESENTED     TD 

I  If  desired  it  can  be  rolled  ai 

1  In  traveling  it  can  be  carrie  **  ^ _  •  rmmtm^ 

1  The  International  Flat  Glol  WUCTWFT  LIBffMf  » 

geographical   review  and  refe 

physical,  mathematical,  natior 

geographical  productions  the  \  HOT    1  «•    1QA1 

1  This  Globe  and  History  are 

the  grandest  present  ever  give: 

BY 
AMY   REQLJA    LONG 


IMPORTANT    TO    USERS    OF 
THIS    GLOBE    AND    HISTORY 


'"T"VHE    relation   between   the    International    Flat  Globe   and    International 
Geographical  History  makes  each  necessary  and  indispensable   to  the 
intelligent  and   satisfactory  use   of  the   other;    and  the   perfect  system   of 
comparison  they  supply  gives  a  complete  understanding  of  the  world. 


The  Globe  and  History  should  always  be  hung  or  laid  side  by  side 
for  convenient  reference.  If  you  hang  the  Globe  against  the  wall  for 
use,  place  the  center  on  a  level  with  the  face;  and  to  turn  it,  take  the 
margin  at  the  point  you  are  following  between  the  thumb  and  finger, 
pull  the  Globe,  still  hanging  by  its  cord,  out  from  the  wall,  and  it  turns 
easily  to  the  opposite  side.  They  can  be  used  upon  a  table  or  desk  and 
at  night  under  a  light. 

By  rolling  in  the  opposite  direction  from  which  it  may  have  been 
turned  or  bent,  this  Globe  can  always  be  made  to  hang  or  lay  perfectly 
flat.  It  is  made  of  a  flexible  composition  that  will  last  for  twenty  years. 


All  colonies,  dependencies,  and  islands  bear  the  same  color  as  the 
country  owning  or  controlling  them. 

The  lines  of  latitude,  longitude,  cable  routes,  international  date  line 
and  ice  drifts  are  in  black,  steamship  routes  in  red,  the  ocean  currents  and 
clock  dials  showing  time  around  the  world  are  shaded  yellow. 


"KNOW  THE  WORLD  YOU  LIVE   UPON" 


INTERNATIONAL  FLAT  GLOBE 

AND 

INTERNATIONAL  GEOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY 

INDEX 

THE  ONLY  COMPLETE   AND  UP-TO-DATE    SYSTEM   OF  WORLD-WIDE 
GEOGRAPHICAL   REVIEW  AND  REFERENCE 


SUBJECT  .  PAGE 

ABYSSINIA 44 

Afghanistan    44 

Africa  93 

Agriculture,  The  Seasons  and •    5 

Air,  Navigating  the 33 

Airships — Navigating  the  Air. 33 

Alaska    44 

Algeria   45 

Alternation  of   Seasons 4 

Andorra   45 

Animal  Life,  Distribution  of , 23 

Antipodes,   The 35 

Approximate  Ocean  Distances 42 

Arabia    46 

Area  of  Oceans 43 

Argentine    Republic 4(5 

Asia    ; 93 

Atmosphere,   The 3 

Aurora    Borealis 8 

Australia,  The   Commonwealth  of 46 

Austria- Hungary 47 

Automobiles   33 

BASINS  23 

Belgium   47 

Bolivia   48 

Brazil     48 

British    Guiana 62 

British  Honduras 48 

Bulgaria    49 

CANADA,  DOMINION  OF 49 

Canal,  Panama  Ship 30 

Cape  Colony 50 

Cardinal   Points,   The 35 

Change  of  Date  Line 37 

Chile   51 

Chinese  Empire 50 

Cities,  Electric  Roads  between 33 

Cities,  Transportation  in 32 

Circles,  Great  and   Small 36 

Circles,  The  Polar ,. 38 

Colonial    Possessions : 93 

Denmark,    France,    Germany    and    Great 

Britain  94 


Italy  and  the  Netherlands 95 

Portugal,  Spain  and  United  States 96 

Clouds    6 

Climate    15 

Colombia   51 

Comet     13 

Congo  Free  State 52 

Conquest   of  Nature,   Man's 28 

Corea    53 

Costa   Rica 53 

Cuba   53 

Currents,    Ocean 18 

DATE  LINE,  Change  of 37 

Days,  Length  of,  at  Various  Latitudes 41 

Days,  Lengthening  of 4 

Days,  Shortening  of 4 

Degrees  of  Longitude,  Length  of 37 

Denmark   54 

Density   of   the   Earth 3 

Depths,  Ocean 18 

Depths  of  the  Oceans 43 

Distances,  Approximate   Ocean 42 

Distribution  of  Animal   Life 23 

Distribution  of  the  Lands 18 

Distribution  of  Vegetable  Life 25 

Divides,   Water 23 

Divisions  of  Time 40 

Division    of   Continents    among    the    Coun- 
tries of  the  World 92 

Dominion  of  Canada 49 

Dutch    East    Indies 54 

Dutch   Guiana 62 

EARTH,  Density  of  the 3 

Earth,  Movements  of  the 3 

Earth,  Revolution  of  the 4 

Earth,  Rotation  of  the 5 

Earth,  Shape  of  the 3 

Earth,  Size  of  the 2 

Earth's  Crust,  Movements  of  the 20 

Earthquakes     8 

Eclipses    11 

Ecuador   55 

Egypt     56 


11 


INDEX 


SUBJECT  PACK 

Electric  Itoad-  between  Cities  and  Towns..  33 

D;tys 4 

Nights 4 

of    Time 40 

F.Miiator.     The 36 

Equinoxes,  or   K(|unl   Nights 4 

Kru    of    Scientific    1'rnyress 28 

Kthiopia     (Abyssinia) 44 

Europe    92 


FAMILY  01    \\  oui.ns.  A 2 

Forms    of    the    Lands 20 

France    56 

French    Guiana 62 

French  Indo-China.  .  .   57 


CI:I:\IANY    57 

Great   and  Small  Circles 36 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 59 

(ireat    Circles 36 

(  Jreece      :....! 60 

Greenland    :  . .  .  60 

Guam 61 

Guatemala     (il 

Guiana   (British,  Dutch  and  French) 62 


HAITI 62 

Hawaii     63 

Highways  of  the  Sea 38 

Honduras    .  .  64 


INDIA   64 

Ireland   59 

Italy   65 


JAMAICA 
Japan   . . 


66 
66 


LAKES    23 

Lands,  Distribution  of  the 18 

Lands,   Forms  of  the 20 

Latitude    36 

Latitudes  of  Places,  To  find  the 41 

Lengthening  of  Days  and  Nights 4 

Lengthening  and   Shortening  of   Days   and 

Nights  ' 4 

Length  of  Days  at  Various  Latitudes 41 

Length  of  Degrees  of  Longitude 37 

Liberia     67 

Longitude    36 

Longitude   and   Latitude 36 

Longitude  of  Places,  To  find  the 41 

Luxemburg   68 


MADAGASCAR    68 

Magnetism,    Terrestrial 8 

Man's  Conquest  of  Nature 28 

Mathematical  Geography,  Beginning  of.  ...   35 

Men,  Races  of , 25 

Meteors    . 12 

Mexico   69 

Monaco 70 

Montenegro    70 


SUBJECT  PAGE 

Moon,  Phases  of  the 12 

Morocco 70 

Mountain  Ranges 21 

Movements   of  the   Earth 3 

Movements  of  the  Earth's  Crust.  .  .   20 


NATIONAL    AND    POLITICAL    GEOGRAPHY, 

I'x'ginning  of    44 

Nature,   Man's   Conquest   of 28 

Navigating  the  Air 33 

Netherlands,   The 7l 

Newfoundland    72 

New  Zealand 72 

Nicaragua 73 

Nights,  Lengthening  of 4 

Nights,    Shortening   of 4 

North   America 92 

Norway    73 

OCEANS,  Area  of 43 

Ocean  Currents '. 18 

Ocean  Depths 18 

Oceans,  The  Depth  of 43 

Ocean  Distances,  Approximate 42 

Orange   River   Colony 74 

PANAMA    74 

Panama   Ship   Canal 30 

Paraguay    74 

Peary's  Letter  to  the  Public, 

First  inside  cover  page 

Persia     75 

Peru    75 

Phases  of  the  Moon 12 

Philippine    Islands 76 

Physical  Geography,  Beginning  of 2 

Places,  To  find  the  Latitude  and  Longitude 

of     41 

Plains     22 

Plateaus    22 

Pneumatic  Tubes 34 

Points  of  Advantage.  .First  inside  cover  page 

Polar   Circles 38 

Poles,    The 36 

Political   Geography,   Beginning   of 44 

Porto  Rico 77 

Portugal    77 

Progress,  Era  of  Scientific 28 

Publishers'  Statement . .  Inside  back  cover  page 

RACES  OF  MEN 25 

Railroads 31 

Rainbow  • 8 

Rainfall   -.  6 

Ranges,   Mountain 21 

Revolution  of  the  Earth 4 

Rotation  of  the  Earth 5 

Roumania    78 

Russian   Empire 78 

SALVADOR    80 

San   Marino 80 

Santo  Domingo 81 

Scientific  Progress,  The  Era  of 28 

Seas,  Highways  of  the 38 

Seasons,  Alternation  of 4 


INDEX. 


Ill 


SUBJECT  PAGE 

Seasons  and  Agriculture 5 

Servia    81 

Shape  of  the   Earl  li 3 

Shortening  of  Days  and  Nights 4 

Siam 81 

Size  of  the  Earth 2 

Small  Circles 36 

Some  Features  of  the  Flat-Globe 38 

South    America 92 

Spain    82 

Submarine   Boats 33 

Sweden     f 83 

Switzerland    83 

TELEGRAPH,   The 34 

Telephone,   The 35 

Terrestrial  Magnetism 8 

Thunderstorms    8 

Tides    18 

Time     39 

Time  around  the  World 39 

Time,  Divisions  of 40 

Time,  Equation  of 40 

To    find    the    Latitude    and    Longitude    of 

Places  41 

Towns,  Electric  Roads  between 33 

Towns,  Transportation  in  Large 32 

Transportation    30 

Transportation  in  Cities  and  Large  Towns  32 

Transvaal  Colony 84 

Tubes,    Pneumatic 34 

Tutuila    85 

Turkey     85 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 85 

Uraguay    91 

VALLEYS   22 

Various  Latitudes,  Length  of  Days  at 41 

Vegetable  Life,  Distribution  of 25 

Venezuela    91 

Volcanoes    9 

WATER  DIVIDES 23 

Water  Divides  aud  Basins 23 

Winds     15 

World;  Time  around  the 39 

Worlds,  A  Family  of 2 


SUBJECT  PAOE 

XAN/IIJAIJ    92 

Zones,   The 38 


DESCRIPTIVE  MAPS  AND  PHOTOGRAPHIC 
ILLUSTRATIONS 

Climatic  Belts 14 

Density  of   Population 27 

Depths  of  the  Sea 19 

Distribution  of  Domestic  Animals 24 

Mont    Pel6,    Martinique    Island,    in    Erup- 
tion      10 

Navigable  Rivers  and  Coastwise  Steamship 

Lines  of  the  United  States 88 

Panama — Showing  the  Croat  Value  of  Pan- 
ama's  Position   to   the   Commerce   of  the 

World  31 

Physical  .Map  of  the  United  States 86 

Principal    Railroads     and     Standard    Time 

Belts  of  the  United  States 90 

Races  of  the  Black  Type 25 

Races  of  the  Yellow  Type — Le  Hung  Chang  26 
Races  of  the  White  Type — Washington.  ...  26 

Rainfall   7 

Some  Forms  of  Mountains 22 

The  World — Showing  the  United  States  as 

its  Commercial  Centre 29 

Types  of  Clouds 6 

Winds  and  Ocean  Currents.  .  .   17 


MATHEMATICAL   AND   OTHER   TABLES 

I 

Approximate  Ocean  Distances 42 

Depths  of  the  Oceans 43 

Distances  and  Mail  Time  from  New  York 

City 43 

How  to  find  the  Latitude  and  Longitude  of 

Places  41 

Length  of  Days  at  Various  Latitudes 41 

Length  of  Degrees  of  Longitude  at  Differ- 
ent Latitudes 37 

Partition  of  the  Continents: 

North  America,  South  America,  Europe.  .  92 

Asia,  Africa,  Australia , 93 

Relationship  of  Longitude  to  Time 39 

United  States  Ports  of  Entry 43 


The  International  Flat  Globe  and  International  Geographical  History  of  the 
World  are  protected  under  the  Berne  Convention. 


INTERNATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD 

ACCOMPANYING 

THE  INTERNATIONAL  FLAT  GLOBE 


The  International  Globe  and  Geographical  History  (Two  Parts) 
comprise  a  new  Twentieth  Century  system  of  up-to-date  geographical  review  and 
reference.  The  Globe  gives  a  full  presentation  of  the  entire  earth's  surface  in  the 
proper  relations  of  Continents,  Countries,  Islands  and  Water.  The  Geographical 
History  gives  an  interesting  and  complete  explanation  and  description  of  the 
earth's  surface,  from  the  points  of  Physical  Geography,  Mathematical  Geography, 
and  the  History  of  the  ages  as  shown  in  the  political  subdivisions  of  the  earth. 
This  Globe  and  Geographical  History  combined  give  to  the  mind  of  the  reader  a 
correct  and  full  geographical  education  that  is  lasting  and  permanent,  and 
both  scholarly  and  commercial. 

The  word  Geography  means  "Description  of  the  Earth."  The  subject  em- 
braces exact  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of  phenomena  on  the  earth's  surface 
and  explains  the  relations  of  man  to  his  terrestrial  environment.  Amid  what 
seas,  land  forms,  soils,  climatic  conditions,  varieties  of  animal  and  vegetable  life 
and  other  phenomena  of  nature  does  man  live  and  toil?  How  does  each  of  them 
affect  man  and  his  enterprises  ?  How  does  he  utilize,  modify,  improve  or  subdue 
them  ?  The  purpose  of  the  study  of  geography  is  to  show  where  these  phenomena 
are  and  to  answer  such  questions  as  these ;  and  the  answers  illumine  the  earth  in 
its  relation  to  man. 

"We  cannot  read  history  or  the  news  of  the  day  aright,  nor  understand  what 
man  is  achieving,  unless  we  are  familiar  with  geography;  and  first  of  all  we 
must  know  the  relations  to  one  another  of  the  various  features  of  the  earth's 
surface ;  and  to  do  this,  we  must  understand  the  distribution  of  these  features  over 
the  earth. 

An  idea  of  the  distribution  of  land  and  water,  continents,  countries,  and  islands 
over  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth,  can  be  faithfully  and  accurately  conve3Ted  only 
by  means  of  a  globe  such  as  this  History  explains.  It  is  only  on  the  spherical  sur- 
face of  a  globe  or  by  means  of  such  a  projection  on  a  flat  surface  as  that  of  the 
International  Flat  Globe  that  the  different  countries,  seas,  etc.,  of  the  earth  can 
be  shown  exactly  or  approximately  in  their  proper  proportion  and  exact  relation 
to  one  another  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  world.  On  all  other  kinds 
of  maps  there  is  necessarily  distortion  of  some  parts. 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD. 

An  old-style  ball  Globe  is  very  expensive  and  inconvenient,  and  few  persons 
can  afford  such  a  luxury.  The  International  Flat  Globe  has  therefore  been 
devised  to  bring  within  the  reach  of  all  a  true  conception  of  the  earth's  surface. 
It  has  practically  all  the  advantages  of  an  old-fashioned  Globe  and  many 
advantages  over  it,  while  the  cost  is  comparatively  small. 

It  is  our  aim  in  this  Geographical  History  to  give  a  correct  description  of  the 
earth  from  every  point  of  view  in  connection  with  the  International  Flat  Globe 
illustrating  the  whole  world. 

The  International  Globe  is  circular  in  form,  perfectly  flat,  twenty-eight 
inches  in  diameter,  and  hangs  against  the  wall.  Each  side  of  the  Globe  contains 
a  complete  hemisphere — that  is,  on  one  side  the  Western  and  on  the  opposite 
side  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  You  will  see  at  once  that  by  bringing  the  lines  of 
latitude  and  longitude  exactly  opposite  to  one  another,  as  we  do  in  printing,  you 
can  follow  the  entire  surface  of  the  earth  by  simply  turning  your  Globe  over  when 
going  from  one  hemisphere  or  side  to  the  other. 

A  view  of  the  world  in  its  various  aspects  will  be  presented  in  these  pages  with 
references  here  and  there  to  our  Flat  Globe  as  illustrating;  the  text. 


Physical  Geography  considers  the  different  materials  of  which  the  earth  is 
composed,  compares  them  and  treats  of  their  functions.  The  rocks  that  form 
the  solid  parts  of  the  earth,  the  waters  that  flow  over  them  and  the  all-embracing 
atmosphere,  together  with  their  forms,  movements  and  uses  and  the  solar  and 
terrestrial  energies  that  develop  so  many  activities  in  matter,  are  among  its  topics. 

A  Family  of  Worlds.— The  Earth  is  one  of  a  number  of  planets  that  belong 
to  the  Sun,  move  around  it,  and  derive  their  light  and  heat  from  it.  Of  the 
known  planets.  Mercury  and  Venus  are  nearer  the  sun  than  we  are,  but  Mars, 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus  and  Neptune,  in  this  order,  are  further  away  from  it. 
The  earth  is  the  fifth  in  size,  being  smaller  than  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus  and 
Neptune,  and  larger  than  Yenus,  Mars  and  Mercury.  Outside  the  orbit  of  Mars 
are  many  minor  planets,  or  asteroids,  of  which  over  400  have  thus  far  been  dis- 
covered. 

Size  of  the  Earth. — We  are  apt  to  think  that  our  world  is  an  enormous, 
body,  but  it  is  really  one  of  the  smaller  specks  of  dust  that  move  through  space. 
The  universe  is  illimitable,  and  we  cannot  grasp  it  in  our  thoughts.  We  know 
at  least  that  our  entire  solar  system  is  only  a  point  in  space,  and  we  need  not  seek 
outside  this  system  for  proof  of  the  comparative  insignificance  of  this  dwelling- 
place  of  ours.  Our  satellite,  the  moon,  is  circling  around  the  earth  at  a  distance 
of  240,000  miles  from  us.  Suppose  we  could  place  the  earth  and  its  satellite 
within  the  sun,  the  earth  at  its  center ;  with  the  moon  moving  around  the  earth 
at  its  present  distance,  the  sun  would  still  extend  nearly  200,000  miles  beyond  the 
moon  at  all  points.  The  diameter  of  the  sun  is  over  109  times  the  diameter  of 
the  earth  through  the  equator. 

Many  of  the  stars  are  believed  to  be  larger  than  the  sun.  All  the  stars 
are  far-away  suns,  and  the  star  that  is  nearest  to  us  is  so  remote  that  while  it  takes 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL,   HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD.  3 

only  eight  minutes  for  a  ray  of  light  to  travel  nearly  93,000,000  miles  from  the 
sun  to  us,  it  would  take  about  three  and  a  half  years  for  the  ray  to  reach  us  from 
the  nearest  star.  Astronomers  have  calculated  the  distance  of  the  nearest  stars 
from  us,  but  their  figures  are  expressed  in  so  many  hundreds  of  millions  of  miles 
that  they  convey  no  definite  idea  to  our  minds. 

The  area  of  the  earth's  surface  is  computed  at  196,712,000  square  miles,  or 
about  sixty-five  times  the  area  of  continental  United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska. 
Of  this  area,  144,712,000  square  miles  are  assigned  to  the  ocean,  and  52,000,000, 
or  about  two-fifths,  to  the  land. 

Shape  of  the  Earth.  — The  Earth  is  not  a  perfectly  symmetrical  sphere. 
This  has  been  proved  by  careful  measurements  of  the  length  of  degrees  of  the 
meridian  lines  that  are  traced  on  the  globe  from  pole  to  pole  (p.  37  of  this  His- 
tory). If  the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  the  length  of  each  meridian  from 
equator  to  pole  would  be  exactly  the  same.  But  the  measurements  show  that 
there  is  a  progressive  increase  in  the  length  of  the  degrees  towards  the  poles,  and 
this  could  only  occur  by  a  flattening  of  the  earth's  surface  at  the  poles.  The  result 
of  all  this  investigation  proves  that  the  equatorial  diameter  is  about  263^  miles 
longer  than  the  polar  diameter,  so  that  each  pole  is  compressed  about  13%  miles. 
The  mean  equatorial  diameter  has.  a  length  of  7,925.65  statute  miles,  and  the 
mean  polar  diameter  is  7,899.17  miles  long.  The  circumference  of  the  equator  is 
about  24,902  miles. 

Density  of  the  Earth. — It  is  certain  that  the  materials  deep  under  the 
earth's  crust  are  heavier  than  the  rocks  which  form  its  surface,  because  the  force 
of  gravitation  increases  towards  the  center,  thus  augmenting  their  density,  or,  in 
other  words,  their  weight.  Experiments  made  with  pendulum  and  plumb-line  on 
the  earth's  attraction  indicate  that  the  earth  weighs  about  53^  times  as  much  as 
it  would  if  it  were  composed  entirely  of  water,  and  therefore  its  density  is  com- 
puted to  be  about  5^.  The  density  of  the  other  planets  varies  from  1  to  7;  that 
of  the  sun  is  1^,  and  of  the  moon  3M. 

The  Atmosphere. — Encircling  the  earth  and  as  much  a  part  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  our  planet  as  its  land  and  water,  is  an  invisible  ocean  of  gas  and  vapor 
which  we  call  air.  It  is  the  outer  envelope  wrapped  around  the  planet,  and  its 
•distinctive  name,  Atmosphere,  means  vapor-sphere.  Astronomers  believe,  from 
their  observations  of  the  heights  at  which  meteors,  dropping  into  our  atmosphere, 
become  red  hot  through  friction  against  the  air,  that  this  gaseous  envelope  extends 
about  500  miles  above  the  surface  of  the  earth;  but  only  a  few  miles  above  the 
sea  level  it  becomes  so  light  and  thin  that  it  will  not  support  human  life. 

Chemists  have  found  that  air  is  composed  by  weight  of  over  three-fourths  nitro- 
gen and  not  quite  one-fourth  oxygen;  solid  particles,  such  as  the  dancing  motes 
we  may  see  in  a.  beam  of  sunlight,  are  always  present,  consisting  chiefly  of  little 
specks  of  dust,  and  sometimes  also  of  minute  living  germs  from  which  lowly  forms 
of  vegetable  or  animal  life  may  spring.  Rain  washes  out  many  of  these  tiny 
-motes,  and  thus  acts  as  a  purifier  of  the  air. 

Movements  of  the  Earth. — Our  world  is  travelling  through  space  with 
wonderful  rapidity.  It  revolves  around  the  sun  every  year6;  and  every  day  in  the 
year  it  turns  or  rotates  on  its  axis.  Why  does  the  earth  keep  moving  ?  The  reason 


4  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD. 

is  because  in  empty  space  it  meets  no  friction  or  other  impediment  to  retard 
or  stop  its  motion.  The  air  does  not  impede  it,  because  it  is  a  part  of  the  earth 
and  moves  with  it.  The  two  motions  of  the  earth  will  never  cease,  unless  as  much 
power  is  exerted  to  annul  them  as  was  applied  to  produce  them. 

The  Earth's  Revolution. — Why  does  the  earth  move  around  the  sun  ? 
Every  particle  of  matter  in  the  universe  tries  to  attract  or  draw  to  itself  every 
other  particle.  This  is  called  the  attraction  of  gravitation.  Some  force  impelled 
the  earth  to  move  forward  in  a  straight  line,  but  the  force  of  gravitation  is 
exerted  at  the  same  time  to  draw  it  to  the  sun;  and  these  two  forces,  continually 
exerted  on  the  earth,  are  so  adjusted  that  instead  of  shooting  off  into  space  or 
falling  into  the  sun,  our  globe  revolves  around  the  sun  in  a  nearly  circular  path, 
which  is  called  its  orbit;  and  the  period  of  time  we  call  a  year  is  merely  the  time 
in  which  the  earth  makes  one  complete  revolution  around  the  sun. 

Our  globe  is  rushing  along  its  orbit  at  the  rate  of  68,000  miles  an  hour,  or 
1,632,000  miles  in  a  day.  We  are  travelling  over  600,000,000  miles  every  year 
in  our  great  annual  journey  around  the  sun.  The  direction  of  both  the  revolution 
and  the  rotation  of  the  earth  is  from  west  to  east. 

If  the  two  forces,  propulsion  and  gravity,  were  exactly  balanced,  the  earth's 
orbit  would  be  a  perfect  circle;  but  as  they  are  not,  the  real  form  of  the  orbit  is 
an  oval  or  ellipse.  The  result  is  that  our  globe,  at  one  part  of  its  course,  is  nearer 
to  the  sun  than  at  another,  its  average  distance  being  computed  at  92,800,000 
miles. 

Lengthening  and  Shortening  of  Days  and  Nights. — A  peculiarity 
of  the  earth  as  it  swings  around  the  sun  causes  the  changes  in  the  length  of  days 
and  nights,  and  also  accounts  for  the  alternation  of  seasons.  If  the  axis  of  the 
earth  were  perpendicular  to  the  path  along  which  it  moves  around  the  sun,  the 
globe  would  be  moving  in  a  perfectly  upright  position,  and  day  and  night  would 
be  equal  in  length  all  the  year.  But  the  axis  is  really  inclined  23%  degrees  from 
the  perpendicular,  so  that  the  north  end  of  it,  or,  in  other  words,  the  North  Pole, 
points  nearly  to  the  Polar  Star.  Twice  a  year,  March  20th  and  September  22d, 
the  earth  reaches  such  positions  in  its  orbit  that  the  sun  is  exactly  vertical  over, 
the  equator.  Then  the  line  between  the  dark  and  the  sunljt  half  of  the  globe, 
dividing  day  and  night,  passes  through  the  Poles,  and  day  and  night  are  each 
twelve  hours  long  throughout  the  world. 

Equinoxes,  or  Equal  Nights. — After  the  March  equinox,  the  North  Pole 
is  turned  towards  the  sun,  and  as  the  earth  moves  on  its  path,  more  and  more  of  the 
northern  half  of  it  comes  into  the  sunlight.  The  days  grow  longer  and  longer 
the  further  north  we  go,  until,  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  the  sun  does  not  set  at 
midsummer  at  all,  and  at  the  North  Pole  the  day  is  six  months  long.  At  the 
same  time,  the  South  Pole,  turned  away  from  the  sun,  has  a  night  of  half  a  year. 
Then  as  the  earth  goes  on  its  orbit  and  the  September  equinox  is  reached,  the 
North  Pole  begins  to  point  away  from  the  sun,  the  days  shorten  and  the  nights 
lengthen  through  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  the  North  Pole  has  its  half-year 
of  night,  while  the  South  Pole  is  in  continuous  daylight. 

Alternation  of  the  Seasons. — This  is  also  due  to  the  inclination  of  the 
earth's  axis.  During  half  the  year  the  Northern  Hemisphere  receives  far  more 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL,   HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD.  5 

sunshine  than  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  This  is  the  warm  or  summer  season  in 
the  north,  while  it  is  the  cold  or  winter  season  in  the  southern  half  of  the  world; 
for  the  next  six  months  it  is  the  winter  season  in  the  north  and  the  summer  season 
in  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 

When  it  is  the  summer  half  of  the  year  where  we  live,  the  high  temperature 
of  the  torrid  zone  advances  to  the  middle  latitude  and  the  cold  of  the  polar  regions 
becomes  less  severe;  but  in  the  winter  half-year,  the  cold  of  the  polar  regions  is 
intense,  low  temperatures  advance  through  the  middle  latitudes,  and  the  heat 
on  the  edge  of  the  torrid  zone  is  temperate.  The  half  of  the  earth  over  which  the 
winter  season  reigns  receives  the  rays  of  the  sun  more  slantingly ;  they  are  scat- 
tered over  a  larger  surface,  and  consequently  their  power  is  less  intense. 

The  earth  is  so  small  that  it  receives  only  a  little  of  the  sun's  light  and  heat, 
but  it  is  these  gifts  that  make  life  possible  on  the  earth. 

The  Seasons  and  Agriculture. — The  two  great  farming  regions  are  in 
the  north  and  south  temperate  zones.  The  preceding  section  tells  us  that-  when 
it  is  summer  in  one  of  these  zones  it  is  winter  in  the  other.  This  is  a  kindly  pro- 
vision of  nature,  for  the  result  of  it  is  that  the  work  of  raising  the  food  and 
vegetable  fibers,  the  fruits  and  the  grasses  required  by  man  and  the  domestic 
animals,  never  ceases.  For  several  months  in  the  year  most  of  our  farm  lands 
are  frozen  solid  to  a  depth  of  several  inches  or  a  foot  or  more;  but  in  those  very 
months  the  farmers  of  Argentina,  Cape  Colony,  Australia  and  New  Zealand  are 
cutting  their  wheat,  turning  grass  into  hay  and  gathering  the  orchard  fruits. 
The  wheat  harvest  is  in  progress  somewhere  every  month  in  the  year.  Even  in 
the  temperate  zones  there  is  much  difference  in  the  time  during  which  the  same 
crops  are  gathered.  Thus  in  our  Southern  States,  vegetables  are  grown  much 
earlier  than  in  our  Northern  States,  and  the  JSTorth  can  draw  upon  this  source  of 
supply  during  the  winter  and  early  spring  until  its  own  vegetables  mature ;  and 
if  the  wheat  crop  of  the  north  temperate  zone  yields  less  than  usual  it  is  a  great 
blessing  to  be  able  to  draw  upon  the  wheat  that  is  grown  in  the  south  temperate 
zone  several  months  later  without  waiting  a  whole  year  for  the  succeeding 
northern  crop  to  ripen. 

A  little  after  midwinter  the  fine  peaches,  grapes,  plums  and  other  fruits  of 
New  Zealand  and  Cape  Colony,  carried  thousands  of  miles  in  cold  storage,  are 
found  in  the  markets  of  London,  and  since  1902  in  those  of  New  York,  while 
our  own  vines  and  fruit  trees  are  still  leafless.  In  the  torrid  zone,  food  may  be 
grown  the  year  around.  But  in  the  temperate  zones,  where  vegetable  food  can 
be  grown  only  a  part  of  the  year,  it  is  a  great  advantage  for  the  inhabitants  of 
one  zone  to  be  able  to  draw  upon  the  supplies  raised  in  the  other  zone  in  another 
part  of  the  year.  So  these  differences  in  the  growing  seasons,  together  with 
cheap  and  rapid  transportation,  and  refrigeration  to  preserve  perishable  products, 
help  to  bring  all  nations  close  together  in  business  and  social  relations. 

Rotation  of  the  Earth. — While  rushing  forward  on  its  path  through 
space,  the  globe  is  turning  around  on  its  axis  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  so  that 
the  sun  is  constantly  rising  on  one  part  of  its  surface  and  setting  on  another  part. 
So  great  is  the  speed  of  this  rotation  that  we  should  be  thrown  off  into  space  if  it 
were  not  that  the  earth's  attraction  is  more  powerful  than  the  tendency  to  fly  off. 


<f)  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD. 

This  rotation  causes  the  succession  of  day  and  night.  We  a  re  not  always  wrapped 
in  darkness  when  the  sun  is  hidden  from  our  view  on  the  other  side  of  the  world, 
because  in  the  part  of  every  month  when  the  sun  shines  on  that  face  of  the  moon 
which  is  always  turned  toward  us,  the  reflection  of  the  sun's  beams  casts  a 
gentle  refulgence  over  the  dark  side  of  the  earth. 

Clouds. — Vapor,  by  evaporation  from  wrater  surfaces,  enters  the  atmosphere, 
and  when  carried  aloft  may  be  cooled  so  far  as  to  become  condensed.  This  makes 
the  air  cloudy,  and  if  the  cooling  and  condensation  are  continued  far  enough  will 
cause  rain  or  snow.  Frequently  the  moisture-laden  air  is  condensed  by  cooling 
near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  then  we  have  fogs,  which  do  not  differ  from 


TYPES  OF  CLOUDS. 


clouds  except  that  they  are  nearer  the  ground.  There  are  numerous  forms  of 
clouds,  but  they  are  classed  under  four  principal  types:  cumulus  clouds,  rounded 
into  great  masses  like  heaps  of  wool,  usually  formed  at  the  top  of  an  ascend- 
ing column  of  air;  cirrus  clouds,  light  and  feathery  in  appearance,  formed  at 
heights  of  several  miles,  and  consisting  of  snowflakes  or  tiny  ice  crystals;  stratus 
clouds,  which  extend  in  long  horizontal  layers  and  are  formed  much  nearer  the 
earth  than  the  cirrus  clouds;  nimbus  clouds,  widely  spread  cloud  masses  from 
which  rain  or  snow  is  falling. 

Rainfall. — This  term  includes  rain,  snow,  hail  and  sleet.  When  water  vapor 
condenses  so  far  that  the  particles  of  water  become  too  large  for  the  air  to  hold 
them  up,  they  are  precipitated  to  the  earth  in  one  of  the  forms  above  mentioned. 
The  vapor  crystallizes  into  snowflakes  if  the  condensation  occurs  at  a  temperature 
below  the  freezing-point.  Sleet  is  half-melted  snow.  Hail  usually  occurs  in 


8  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD. 

summer,  when  the  air  currents  of  lofty  thunderstorms  carry  raindrops  so  high 
that  they  are  frozen  before  they  fall. 

Thunderstorms. — The  generation  of  electricity  often  accompanies  the 
rapid  condensation  of  water  vapor.  This  production  of  electricity  often  occurs  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  induce  frequent  discharges  of  lightning  from  cloud  to  cloud, 
or  from  the  clouds  to  the  earth.  Such  a  disturbance  is  called  a  thunderstorm. 
The  discharges  of  electricity  and  claps  of  thunder  inay  be  terrific,  particularly  in 
the  tropics.  The  rainfall  in  such  storms  does  not  often  exceed  an  hour  unless  a 
second  storm  closely  follows  the  first  one. 

The  Rainbow. — When  the  sun  shines  on  drops  of  falling  water  an  arch  of 
light  is  formed  in  the  sky  showing  the  colors  that  the  prism  reveals.  This  arch 
is  called  a  rainbow.  The  sun's  rays  are  refracted  by  each  drop  of  water,  and  the 
white  light  from  the  sun  is  broken  up  into  the  colors  which  form  it. 

Aurora  Borealis. — The  quivering  light  seen  in  the  north,  but  sometimes 
covering  the  whole  sky,  is  called  by  this  name.  It  is  believed  to  be  the  result  of 
discharges  of  electricity  through  the  air.  The  data  supplied  by  many  observers 
seem  to  show  that  there  is  a  belt  of  aurora  borealisin  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
the  center  of  the  belt  passing  through  Hudson  Bay,  northern  Norway  and  Point 
Barrow,  Alaska,  thus  encircling  the  world.  A  similar  phenomenon  (Aurora 
australis)  is  also  observed  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  The  height  of  the  aurora 
above  the  earth's  surface  has  not  been  satisfactorily  determined,  but  it  is  believed 
that  the  electrical  phenomena  occur  at  no  very  great  altitude. 

Terrestrial  Magnetism. — This  is  the  mysterious  force  in  nature  which 
causes  the  compass  needle  to  point  towards  the  north  in  most  parts  of  the  world. 
It  is  not  yet  well  understood,  but  most  students  of  physical  science  believe  that  it 
has  its  seat  within  the  earth,  though  others  think  it  may  be  due  to  cosmic  influ- 
ences, such  as  changes  in  the  sun.  It  was  known  centuries  ago  that  the  magnetic 
needle  does  not  point  to  the  true  north,  but  is  deflected, to  the  east  or  west  of  it. 
This  deflection  is  called  the  magnetic  declination,  and  the  amount  of  the  declina- 
tion for  all  parts  of  the  world  must  be  redetermined  from  time  to  time  as  it  varies. 

It  was  also  found  that  when  the  magnetic  needle  is  hung  on  a  horizontal  axis, 
the  needle  point  may  rise  towards  the  sky  or  sink  towards  the  earth.  This  is 
called  the  magnetic  dip,  or  inclination.  In  1831  the  British  polar  explorer,  James 
C.  Ross,  discovered  a  point  on  the  west  coast  of  Boothia,  in  the  American  Arctic 
regions,  where  the  dipping  needle  pointed  almost  exactly  to  the  center  of  the 
earth.  This  spot  is  called  the  north  magnetic  pole,  which  is  believed  to  vary  in 
its  position,  moving  now  to  the  east  and  then  to  the  west.  So  little  is  known 
about  it  that  Captain  Amundsen  left  Norway  with  an  expedition  for  Boothia  in 
1903  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  whether  the  pole  really  changes  its  position,  whether 
it  is  a  point  or  an  area,  and  to  study  other  magnetic  problems.  The  position  of 
the  south  magnetic  pole  has  not  been  exactly  determined.  Many  of  the  leading 
nations  are  now  making  investigations  in  the  hope  to  increase  our  knowledge  of 
the  causes  and  results  of  the  earth's  magnetic  condition. 

Earthquakes. — Every  one  sees  that  many  rocks  of  the  earth's  surface  have, 
been  lifted  or  depressed,  folded  or  broken.  This  shows  that  the  earth's  crust  is 
subject  to  great  strains  and  stresses  which  may  become  too  severe  for  the  rocks 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD.  9 

to  withstand;  the  result  will  be  a  sudden  breakage  or  movement  that  is  felt  at 
the  surface  as  an  earthquake.  There  is  little  doubt  that  at  one  time  or  another 
every  part  of  the  earth's  surface  has  felt  these  disturbances,  though  the  areas  so 
violently  disturbed,  within  the  historic  period,  as  to  destroy  human  life  and  prop- 
erty, are  perhaps  not  more  than  one-fifteenth  or  one-twentieth  of  the  \vhole  sur- 
face. There  are  large  regions  where  earth  movements,  or  tremors,  are  almost 
incessant,  su.cn  as  parts  of  Japan  and  Venezuela.  Seismographs  record  some  3,<  M  >0 
of  these  movements  every  year  in  Japan,  but  most  of  them  are  so  slight  that  they 
can  be  detected  only  by  these  delicate  instruments  in  vented  to  record  earth  move- 
ments; and  while  Japan  is  a  land  of  earthquakes,  only  forty  or  fifty  very  violent 
and  destructive  shocks  have  been  recorded  there  since  the  fifth  century  of  the 
present  era. 

Earthquakes  usually  originate  near  the  ocean  edge,  though  sometimes  their 
starting-point  is  in  the  heart  of  the  continents,  as  in  the  case  of  the  New  Madrid 
earthquakes  in  what  is  now  southeastern  Missouri  and  northeastern  Arkansas;  and 
sometimes  the  effects  of  earthquakes  originating  near  the  oceans  are  felt  to  the  heart 
of  the  continents,  as  happened  in  the  Charleston  earthquake  of  1886,  when  the 
earth -waves  were  recorded  in  southern  Ontario  and  to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  The  opening  of  cracks  in  the  earth  usually  accompanies  these  movements. 
Sometimes  the  fissures  are  wide  enough  to  engulf  houses,  as  in  the  Japan  earth- 
quake of  1891.  The  destruction  of  life  is  sometimes  appalling.  Thirty  thousand 
persons  perished  in  the  Lisbon  earthquake,  12,000  in  the  shocks  that  destroyed 
Caracas,  Venezuela,  and  10,000  Japanese  lost  their  lives  in  the  calamity  of  1891. 

Earthquakes  originating  under  the  sea  have  sometimes  involved  the  people  of 
the  neighboring  coasts  in  dire  calamity  by  waves  that  suddenly  roll  in  upon  the 
land,  causing  great  destruction.  The  shocks  travel  through  the  rocks  at  the 
rate  of  about  three  miles  a  second,  gradually  growing  feebler  until  they  finally 
disappear.  These  catastrophes  cannot  be  averted,  but  the  governments  of  earth- 
quake countries,  as  Japan,  are  making  earnest  efforts  to  secure  all  information  ob- 
tainable as  to  the  origin  and  causes  of  the  phenomena,  and  to  teach,  their  people 
what  kinds  of  structures  will  best  withstand  severe  earth-movements.  They  warn 
them  against  building  their  homes  on  the  banks  of  rivers  or  the  edges  of  cliffs, 
where  they  are  most  likely  to  be  destroyed. 

Volcanoes. — Among  the  violent  processes  of  nature  is  the  expulsion  from 
the  interior  of  the  earth  of  molten  rock,  called  lava,  which  is  spread  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  land  or  on  the  sea-floor.  Sometimes  the  lava  oozes  gently  from  the 
orifice,  or  crater,  but  often  it  is  accompanied  by  explosions  of  steam,  which  are 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  eruptions  of  Vesuvius,  or  by  outbursts  of  gases  such  as 
in  1902  destroyed  the  city  of  St.  Pierre  in  Martinique.  Such  eruptions  are  called 
volcanic.  When  the  lava  and  dust  poured  through  the  crater  are  heaped  up 
around  the  opening,  the  material  in  many  cases  is  raised  to  a  great  height.  The 
mountain  thus  formed  is  called  a  volcano. 

The  causes  of  volcanic  eruptions  are  not  well  understood,  but  steam  has  un- 
doubtedly much  to  do  with  the  production  of  volcanic  activity.  We  know  that 
water  may  sink  deep  beneath  the  earth's  surface  through  permeable  rocks  or  fissures 
in  the  strata.  Deep  in  the  earth  this  water  may  become  superheated,  and  in  the  form 


10  INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD. 

of  steam  may  reach  the  air  through  some  volcanic  vent  with  terrific  explosive 
energy,  blowing  the  accompanying  lava  into  fragments  and  scattering  it  far 
and  wide,  or  tearing  mountains  to  pieces,  as  was  the  case  at  Krakatao  in  1883. 

Volcanoes  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  many  of  them  have  lost 
their  activity  and  are  called  extinct.  They  are  denned  as  active  when  they  are 
more  or  less  frequently  in  eruption,  and  as  dormant  when  they  show  only  such 
faint  signs  of  activity  as  sulphurous  vapors  or  hot  springs  afford. 

There  are  also  colossal  outflows  of  lava  which  do  not  form  mountains,  the 
lavas  being  so  fluid  that  they  flosv  far  and  wide,  covering  vast  tracts  of  country 


MONT  PEL!S,  MARTINIQUE  ISLAND,  IN  ERUPTION. 

with  lava  sheets,  as  in  the  basin  of  the  Columbia  River,  in  the  northwest  part  of 
the  United  States.  "Where  the  lavas  are  less  fluid  they  pile  up  around  the  crater, 
and  the  form  of  the  mountain  thus  produced  is  usually  conical.  Sometimes  the 
molten  matter  is  forced  up  through  long  rifts  in  the  strata  and  hardens  into  rock. 
This  is  the  way  that  the  Palisades  of  the  Hudson  were  formed. 

In  accounts  of  eruptions  we  often  read  of  flames  and  ashes;  but  students  of 
volcanoes  agree  that  there  is  very  little  combustion'in  a  volcanic  outburst.  Steam 
is  overwhelmingly  the  greater  part  of  the  vapors  and  gases  emitted.  Aboift  the 
only  inflammable  gas  in  these  eruptions  is  believed  to  be  a  small  proportion  of 
sulphureted  hydrogen,  but  its  quantity  is  too  small  to  contribute  much  to  the 
spectacular  features  of  a  volcano.  It  is  quite  certain  that  what  appears  to  be 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    IIISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD.  H 

flame  in  an  eruption  is  usually  the  reflection  of  molten  lava  from  the  clouda 
above. 

The  term  volcanic  ashes  does  not  mean  the  residue  left  by  combustion,  but 
the  great  quantities  of  dust  and  other  finely  divided  debris  that  are  often  blown 
thousands  of  feet  into  the  air. 

Along  the  western  coastal  regions  of  the  Americas  are  many  great  volcanoes, 
of  which  not  a  few  in  Latin  America  and  Alaska  are  very  active;  but  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  the  number  showing  even  slight  signs  of  activity  is 
small.  Among  the  most  famous  volcanoes  are  Vesuvius,  in  Italy,  whose  erup- 
tions, studied  for  2,000  years,  have  sometimes  been  terrific.  One  of  them  in 
79  A.D.  over  whelmed  the  towns  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum.  Stromboli,  one  of 
the  Lipari  Islands,  has  been  called  the  "Lighthouse  of  the  Mediterranean," 
because  it  is  always  active  and  illumines  the  sea  for  miles  around  at  night.  One 
of  the  largest  volcanoes  is  Etna,  in  Sicily,  10,000  feet  high  and  40  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, with  craters  not.  only  on  the  top,  but  also  on  the  sides  of  the  moun- 
tain, where  small  cones  have  been  built  by  eruptions.  The  active  volcanoes  of 
our  Territory  of  Hawaii  are  in  the  island  of  Hawaii,  the  highest  being  Mauna 
Loa  and  Mauna  Kea.  A  great  number  of  the  oceanic  islands  were  formed  by 
the  outpouring  of  lavas,  the  increasing  heaps  finally  appearing  above  the  surface 
of  the  oceans.  Java,  Japan,  Sumatra,  and  other  parts  of  the  East  Indies  are  still 
a  field  of  very  great  volcanic  activity. 

Eclipses. — Sometimes  the  sun  is  wholly  or  partially  shut  out  from  our  view 
because  the  moon  interposes  itself  between  the  earth  and  the  sun.  When  a 
larger  or  smaller  part  of  the  sun  is  thus  hidden  from  us  it  is  called  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun. 

At  such  times  the  shadow  of  the  moon  is  cast  on  a  part  of  the  earth,  and  if  we 
are  in  that  shadow  we  see  the  eclipse ;  but  though  the  moon  has  intercepted  the 
rays  of  the  sun  which  illumine  the  place  where  we  are,  millions  of  other  people 
can  see  no  eclipse  because  they  are  not  in  the  shadow,  and  to  them  no  part  of 
the  sun  is  shut  out  of  sight.  The  outline  of  the  eclipsed  part  of  the  sun  is  circular, 
because  the  moon  is  a  sphere.  If  the  full  shadow  of  the  moon  is  cast  on  the  earth, 
the  eclipse  is  total  to  all  observers  in  any  part  of  the  shadow;  but  it  is  a  partial 
eclipse  if  only  a  part  of  the  sun's  disk  is  shut  out  of  sight. 

When  the  moon  is  at  its  greatest  distance  from  the  earth  the  point  of  conver- 
gence of  its  shadow  does  not  reach  the  earth.  In  such  cases  the  central  part  of 
the  sun's  surface  is  shut  out  of  sight  to  the  observer  near  the  central  line,  while 
the  outer  edge  of  the  sun's  surface  is  seen  in  all  its  brightness.  This  is  called  an 
annular  eclipse  of  the  sun. 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon  is  caused  in  a  different  way.  In  the  course  of  their 
movements  the  earth  may  come  between  the  moon  and  the  sun.  If  the  moon 
passes  through  the  shadow  of  the  earth  to  such  extent  that  the  entire  surface  is 
in  shadow,  then  it  is  a  total  eclipse  of  the  moon.  The  form  of  the  shadow  seen 
on  the  disk  of  the  moon  is  circular,  because  the  earth,  producing  the  shadow,  is  a 
sphere. 

Sometimes  the  object  that  is  temporarily  concealed  from  us  by  the  interposi- 
tion of  some  other  bodv  between  it  and  the  earth  is  a  star.  This  is  called  not  an 


12  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD. 

eclipse,  but  an  occultation.     The  term  is  particularly  applied  to  the  occultation 
of  a  fixed  star  by  the  moon. 

Sometimes  the  sun  is  concealed  to  a  very  small  extent  by  the  passage  of  Venus 
-or  Mercury  across  its  face;  in  the  same  way,  a  bit  of  Jupiter  may  be  concealed 
by  the  passage  of  one  or  another  of  his  satellites  across  his  disk.  The  term 
"transit"  is  applied  to  such  occurrences.  Astronomers,  calling  mathematics  to 
their  aid,  have  long  been  able  to  foretell  the  exact  time  of  these  events;  and  they 
have  often  travelled  half  around  the  earth  to  witness  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  or  a 
transit  of  Yenus  in  the  hope  that  observation  under  these  peculiar  circumstances 
would  yield  facts  of  much  scientific  value. 

The  causes  of  eclipses  are  simple  enough  when  they  are  understood,  but  they 
have  often  thrown  millions  of  persons  into  a  state  of  wild  alarm.  In  ancient 
Rome  it  was  against  the  law  to  speak  of  eclipses  as  due  to  natural  causes;  and 
millions  of  the  Chinese  still  believe  that  eclipses  are  caused  by  great  dragons 
that  are  trying  to  devour  the  sun  and  the  moon. 

Phases  of  the  Moon. — The  moon  always  presents  the  same  face  to  the 
earth.  "We  might  infer  that  the  moon  had  no  rotation  on  its  axis,  but  this  would 
be  jncorrect.  As  the  moon  revolves  around  the  earth  every  month,  all  sides  of 
it  would  be  seen  by  us  during  this  monthly  revolution  if  it  did  not  rotate  on  its 
axis.  The  reason  why  the  same  face  of  the  moon  is  always  presented  to  the  earth 
is  because  it  turns  on  its  axis  exactly  as  fast  as  it  revolves  around  the  earth  and 
in  the  same  direction.  The  moon  makes  only  twelve  rotations  on  its  axis  in  a 
year,  while  the  earth  makes  a  complete  rotation  every  day. 

The  moon  does  not  always  present  the  same  appearance  to  us,  and  these  differ- 
ences of  aspect  are  called  the  Phases  of  the  Moon.  The  fact  that  now  a  larger 
and  then  a  smaller  part  of  the  lunar  face  turned  towards  us  are  illumined  by  the 
sun  is  due  to  the  moon's  position  in  the  heavens.  The  moon  is  a  dark  body,  lighted 
only  by  the  sun.  When  the  sun  is  shining  fully  on  the  side  of  the  moon,  we 
cannot  see  the  side  turned  towards  us  is  dark  except  for  a  narrow  bright  border  on 
one  edge,  which  takes  the  form  of  a  crescent.  This  phase  is  called  the  New  Moon. 
As  the  moon  moves  along  in  its  revolution  and  completes  one-fourth  of  its  jour- 
ney, the  sun  lights  up  one-half  of  the  side  Ave  see,  the  other  side  remaining  dark. 
The  moon  then  presents  the  appearance  of  a  semicircle.  This  is  the  First  Quar- 
ter. "When  half  the  revolution  is  completed,  the  face  we  see  is  opposite  the  sun, 
which  shines  fully  upon  it.  This  is  Full  Moon.  During  the  second  half  of  the 
revolution,  the  same  phases  are  repeated  in  the  reverse  order,  and  we  have  the 
Last  Quarter,  and  then  New  Moon  again. 

Meteors. — These  are  small  bodies  that  move  through  space,  most  of  them, 
it  is  believed,  being  concentrated  into  large  or  small  groups.  When  they  appear 
in  our  atmosphere,  they  leave  trails  of  light  and,  in  popular  language,  are  called 
"shooting  stars."  They  are  not  stars,  however,  but  cold  and  dark  bodies  that 
become  superheated  and  visible  only  when  they  enter  our  atmosphere.  As  their 
average  rate  of  motion  is  about  25  miles  in  a  second,  the  friction  of  the  air,  when 
they  dash  into  it,  generates  so  high  a  temperature  that  they  are  usually  dissolved 
and  completely  dissipated  before  they  reach  the  earth.  Some  of  the  larger  of  these 
bodies  resist  the  tremendous  heating  so  far  that  the  residues  of  them  reach  the 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD.  13 

•earth  and  are  usually  called  meteorites,  or  meteoric  stones.  Very  few  meteorites 
have  been  seen  to  fall,  and  there  are  not  over  nine  or  ten  in  the  museums  or  pri- 
vate collections  whose  fall  is  a  matter  of  record.  No  one  knows  how  they  came 
to  be  shooting  through  space,  but  they  consist  of  substances  that  are  common  on 
the  earth,  though  their  chemical  and  mineralogical  combinations  are  such  that  it 
is  believed  that  they  may  be  recognized  as  meteors  even  though  their  fall  is  not 
seen. 

Some  of  them  are  nearly  pure  iron,  with  nickel,  and  others  are  chiefly  stony 
with  grains  of  iron.  It  is  believed  that  they  are  falling  into  our  atmosphere  all 
the  time,  and  of  the  shooting  stars  that  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  any  close 
observer  may  probably  see  an  average  of  five  an  hour,  though  his  range  of  vision  is 
only  200  to  300  miles  from  his  point  of  observation.  The  late  Professor  Newton, 
of  Yale  University,  estimated  that  if  observers  might  scan  the  entire  heavens,  the 
number  visible  daily  would  be  found  to  be  between  15,000,000  and  20,000,000. 
Professor  Rees,  of  Columbia  University,  writes  that  millions  of  them  travel 
together  in  the  same  swarm  or  group,  with  plenty  of  room,  as  the  separate 
bodies  are  frequently  miles  apart.  The  best  time  to  observe  them  is  between 
midnight  and  the  twilight  before  sunrise. 

The  stream  of  meteorites  radiating  from  the  constellation  of  Leo,  which  was 
last  observed  by  telescope  in  1866,  had  a  breadth  of  not  less  than  100,000  miles 
and  a  length  of  300,000  miles.  It  had  been  observed  that  the  Leonids,  as  this 
.swarm  of  meteors  is  called,  usually  reappeared  every  thirty-three  years,  and  they 
were  expected  again  in  1899,  but  failed  to  appear,  owing  doubtless  to  some  unknown 
effect  of  the  planetary  pulls  that  disturbed  their  motion,  for  the  group  is  subject 
to  these  influences  from  Jupiter,  Saturn  and  the  Earth.  The  first  definite  record 
of  the  fall  of  a  meteorite  was  in  Croatia  on  May  26,  1751.  The  ninth  record  was 
that  of  the  Mazapil  (Mexico)  meteorite,  weighing  10^  pounds,  which  fell  on  No- 
vember 27,  1885.  The  tenth  fall  recorded  was  that  of  the  iron-nickel  meteorite, 
weighing  107  pounds,  that  fell  in  Johnson  County,  Ark,,  on  March  27,  1886. 
On  March  12,  1898,  a  meteorite  was  seen  to  drop  into  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  making 
a  clean-cut  hole  30  feet  in  diameter  through  the  ice;  fragments  of  it  were  fished 
up  in  the  following,  year.  The  largest  meteorite  in  a  museum  was  brought  by 
the  Arctic  explorer  Peary  from  near  Cape  York,  Greenland,  to  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York. 

Comet. — The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  nojurfr^?,  meaning  "  with 
long  hair,"  and  was  doubtless  applied  to  comets  on  account  of  the  hairy  appear- 
ance of  the  luminous  vapors  characteristic  of  them.  These  celestial  bodies  are  dis- 
tinct from  all  others,  and  in  some  respects  are  not  yet  well  understood.  They 
consist  of  three  parts:  the  nucleus,  which,  through  the  telescope,  looks  like  an 
irregularly  formed  planet;  the  coma  or  nebulous  light  surrounding  the  nucleus, 
and  the  tail,  a  trail  of  light  which  on  the  greater  comets  sometimes  extends  over 
a  long  arc  of  the  heavens.  They  appear  to  be  fragments  of  nebulous  matter.  They 
have  orbits  the  form  of  which,  however,  is  likely  to  be  changed  by  the  attraction 
of  the  sun  or  of  some  planet,  and  sometimes  they  have  been  observed  to  start  off 
on  orbits  that  would  never  bring  them  back  again  to  human  ken.  Their  number 
is  supposed  to  be  very  large,  but  only  30  or  40  that  are  visible  to  the  nailed  eye 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD.  15 

appear  in  a  century.  The  telescope  usually  finds  five  or  six  every  year,  and  most 
of  them  are  new  ones.  A  few  of  the  known  comets  reappear  at  definite  intervals, 
while  others  have  never  been  seen  but  once,  and  are  not  likely  to  return  for  cen- 
turies. Eighteen  comets  are  known  that  revolve  around  the  sun  in  periods  of 
from  three  to  seventy-five  years. 

Climate. — The  average  weather  conditions  of  each  region  make  its  climate. 
No  other  influences  are  so  great  in  deciding  what  animal  and  vegetable  life  may 
thrive  in  any  particular  region.  The  polar  lands,  the  lofty  mountains  and  pla- 
teaus need  only  higher  temperature  to  make  them  teem  with  vegetation. 

The  world  is  girdled  with  distinctive  zones  of  climate,  each  of  which  has 
enormous  influence  upon  man's  development  and  welfare. 

In  the  tropical  zone  excessive  heat  and  rainfall  give  the  greatest  luxuriance  to 
vegetation.  Man  has  few  needs,  supplies  them  easily,  and  his  energy  and  am- 
bition are  little  developed,  because  he  does  not  have  to  struggle  for  existence. 

In  the  polar  regions  the  struggle  for  life  is  very  severe,  and  man  is  content  if 
by  the  hardest  work  he  can  procure  food  and  shelter  and  sufficient  skins  and  furs 
to  keep  warmth  in  his  body.  The  Antarctic  regions  have  no  human  inhabitants. 

In  the  temperate  zones,  between  the  climatic  extremes,  where  nature  is  the 
powerful  ally  of  human  endeavor,  man  reaches  his  highest  prosperity  and  best 
development. 

Temperature  and  rainfall  are  the  most  important  climatic  elements.  Tem- 
perature decreases  not  only  with  distance  from  the  equator,  but  also  with  eleva- 
tion above  sea  level,  so  that  frigid  conditions  may  prevail  on  the  high  mountains 
and  plateaus  even  of  the  tropical  zone,  as  well  as  at  the  Poles. 

Invisible  vapor  rising  from  water  surfaces  (evaporation)  is  condensed  in  the 
cooler  air  above  the  earth  and  falls  over  land  and  sea  as  rain.  The  sea  is  the 
largest  source  of  rain,  and  so  most  lands  near  the  sea  have  much  more  of  it  than 
the  far  interior  of  the  continents.  But  some  of  the  prevailing  winds  blowing  out 
to  the  sea  from  the  land  are  dry  winds,  and  so  the  coast  is  parched,  as  on  the 
Atlantic  edge  of  the  Desert  of  Sahara.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  winds 
blow  from  the  sea  to  the  land  they  may  become  saturated  writh  water  vapor ;  thus 
the  Amazon  Yalley,  in  South  America,  is  drenched  by  heavy  rains  that  the  north- 
east trade  wind  brings.  Winds  are  the  transporters  of  climate,  for  now  they 
carry  warmth  to  the  cooler  regions,  and  then  mitigate  the  glowing  heat  of  vast 
areas  by  chill  breezes  from  the  polar  latitudes.  They  also  scatter  the  rain  far 
and  wide,  so  that  the  forests  flourish  and  rich  harvests  are  taken  from  the  fields. 

The  Winds. — Air  that  becomes  heated  expands  and  is  lighter  than  the  sur- 
rounding air.  The  heavier  air  around  it  presses  in  and  lifts  the  lighter  air  upward. 
There  is  difference  then  in  the  atmospheric  pressures,  and  thus  air  is  set  in  motion. 
"We  may  properly  infer  from  these  statements  that  differences  of  temperature 
are  the  primary  causes  of  the  differences  in  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the  air  to 
which  winds  are  due. 

The  air  movement  is  kept  up  by  differences  in  atmospheric  pressures  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  world.  Where  high  pressure  prevails  the  air  moves  towards  a 
region  of  low  pressure.  These  differences  of  atmospheric  pressure  determine 
the  direction  and  force  of  the  winds. 


16  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD. 

The  location  of  regions  of  high  and  low  pressure  is  shown  on  the  weather 
maps  by  the  use  of  isobars,  which  are  lines  drawn  through  places  of  equal  pres- 
sure. You  may  observe  on  these  maps  that  the  arrows  indicating  the  direction 
of  the  wind  are  pointed  away  from  the  areas  of  high  pressure  and  towards  those 
of  low  pressure.  The  winds  of  average  velocity  in  the  United  States  blow  at  the 
rate  of  from  5  to  14  miles  an  hour.  Their  velocity  depends  upon  the  steepness  of 
the  pressure  slope  or,  in  other  words,  the  rate  of  the  change  of  pressure  along  any 
line.  Thus,  when  the  isobars  showing  changes  of  pressure  are  close  together,  the 
pressure  slope  is  steep  and  the  wind  is  correspondingly  high.  Tornadoes  some- 
times blow  at  the  rate  of  200  miles  an  hour. 

"Winds  are  called  Constant  when  they  always  persist  in  one  general  direction, 
like  the  northeast  and  southeast  trade  winds.  The  trade  winds  are  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  lower  air  in  the  heated  equatorial  regions  is  always  warmer  and 
lighter  than  the  lower  air  to  the  north  or  south  of  them,  and  consequently  there  is 
always  a  movement  of  air  towards  the  tropical  belt  from  the  cooler  regions  north 
or  south  of  it.  This  movement  of  the  lower  air  currents  towards  the  equator  is 
deflected  to  the  west  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth;  as  winds  are  named  by  the 
direction  from  which  they  blow,  we  have  north  of  the  equator  the  northeast 
trade  winds  and  south  of  it  the  southeast  trade  winds. 

"Winds  are  called  Periodic  if  they  blow  regularly,  part  of  the  time  in  one 
direction,  and  part  of  the  time  in  the  opposite  direction.  "We  all  know  that  the 
land  is  warmer  in  summer  than  the  sea,  and  that  the  sea  is  warmer  in  winter  than 
the  land.  When  the  sea  is  warmer,  the  air  over  it  is  warmer  and  lighter  than  that 
over  the  land,  and  so  there  is  a  movement  of  air  from  the  land  to  the  sea.  These 
periodic  winds  are  most  marked  in  parts  of  south  and  eastern  Asia.  The  high 
plateaus  are  intensely  hot  in  summer,  the  air  over  them  is  rarefied,  and  the 
heavier  air  over  the  sea  moves  to  the  land.  In  winter  the  conditions  are  reversed, 
and  the  air  movement  is  from  the  land  to  the  sea.  These  periodic  winds  over  the 
Asian  lands  and  waters  are  called  monsoons. 

Another  variety  of  periodic  winds  may  be  observed  along  sea  coasts  where 
the  adjacent  land  and  water  are  nearly  of  the  same  temperature;  but  the  land  is 
a  little  warmer  by  day  and  cooler  by  night  than  the  sea,  causing  a  constant  suc- 
cession of  sea  and  land  breezes. 

Temporary  winds  are  caused  by  differences  of  temperature  in  different  areas, 
for  we  all  know  that  the  whole  of  a  land  or  water  surface  is  seldom  equally  heated ; 
and  in  the  lower  atmosphere  the  air  will  move  towards  the  warmer  places. 

Some  winds  are  of  great  importance  in  commerce;  such  are  the  northeastern 
and  southeastern  trades,  that  blow  steadily,  though  with  variable  force,  all  the 
year;  the  monsoons  of  Asiatic  waters,  which  in  winter  blow  south  from  Asia  over 
the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  China  Sea,  and  in  summer  north  from  these  seas  over 
the  land;  also  the  anti-trades  or  western  winds,  between  the  fortieth  and  fif- 
tieth parallels  in  both  hemispheres,  which  speed  sailing  vessels  from  America  to 
Europe  and  from  Australia,  around  Cape  Horn. 

"Winds  have  important  influence  in  modifying  the  forms  of  the  land  surfaces. 
In  the  deserts  they  pile  up  long  ridges  of  sand  called  sand  dunes.  Travelers  on 
the  trans-Caspian  railroad  may  see  these  parallel  dunes,  like  ocean  waves,  stretch- 


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lg  1NTEKNATIONAL   GEOGKAPHICAL    UISTOBY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

ing  away  to  the  horizon.  The  northeast  trade  winds,  starting  in  the  Sahara,  carry 
•clouds  of  sand  over  the  edge  of  the  fertile  lands  to  the  south,  slowly  filling 
the  valleys  and  destroying  vegetation.  During  great  desert  windstorms  the 
air  is  so  charged  with  sand  that  it  is  difficult  to  breathe.  Men  cover  their 
heads  with  cloth  and  lie  on  their  faces,  and  camels  hold  their  noses  close  to  the 
.ground. 

Tides. — Twice  a  day  the  edge  of  the  seas  advances  upon  the  lands,  floods 
the  bays  and  mouths  of  rivers,  and  then  as  slowly  retreats.  This  regular  motion 
•of  the  seas  is  the  tide  coming  in  and  going  out,  and  it  is  caused  by  the  strong 
.attractive  force  of  the  moon  and  the  lesser  influence  of  the  sun,  the  water  yield- 
ing to  the  strain  while  the  land  is  able  to  resist  it.  Tides  are  very  helpful  to  com- 
merce in  many  cases,  as  in  the  lower  Thames,  where  large  vessels  could  not  ascend 
to  London  if  they  did  not  ride  upon  the  inflowing  tides. 

Ocean  Currents. — Our  Flat  Globe  outlines  the  great  ocean  currents.  They 
are  caused  by  the  prevailing  winds,  and  so  have  about  the  same  course  over  the 
seas.  They  affect  the  speed  even  of  steamships;  and  sailing-vessels  endeavor  to 
keep  out  of  the  track  of  such  currents  as  would  retard  their  progress.  A  Pacific 
sailing-ship  starting  from  Panama  for  the  Philippines,  for  example,  might  gain 
forty  miles  a  day  by  steering  into  the  equatorial  current  flowing  west,  while  it 
would  lose  nearly  as  much  if  it  sailed  in  the  equatorial  counter-current  moving  east. 

It  was  thought  not  long  ago  that  the  warm  Gulf  Stream  of  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Japan  current  of  the  Pacific,  the  cold  Labrador  current  and  other  ocean  streams 
had  much  influence  upon  the  temperature  of  the  land.  This  view  now  has  few 
.advocates.  The  Gulf  Stream  as  a  distinct  current  really  terminates  in  the  mid- 
Atlantic.  It  is  not  the  Gulf  Stream,  but  the  prevailing  westerly  winds,  tempered 
as  they  are  by  the  comparatively  warm  surface  of  the  ocean,  that  are  now  believed 
to  be  the  cause  of  the  mild  climate  of  the  northwest  coasts  of  Europe  and  the 
western  coast  of  the  United  States. 

Ocean  Depths. — The  seas  are  the  greatest  highways  of  commerce,  and  many 
-of  the  routes  across  them,  marked  with  the  distances  from  port  to  port,  are  traced 
upon  our  Globe.  Ocean  exploration  has  greatly  advanced  within  recent  years, 
and  many  secrets  of  the  sea  depths  have  been  revealed.  While  the  ocean  basins 
on  the  whole  are  steep-sided  and  flat-floored,  some  great  depressions  and  chasms 
are  discovered.  The  greatest  depth  yet  found  in  the  Pacific  is  30,930  feet,  near 
the  Fiji  Islands.  Another  abysmal  depth  to  the  east  of  Japan  is  over  27,600 
feet  beneath  the  surface.  Through  the  mid- Atlantic  extends  a  ridge  stretching 
north  and  south,  with  water  only  9,000  to  12,000  feet  above  it,  while  on  either 
side  the  depths  sink  to  15,000  and  18,000  feet.  The  greatest  depth  yet  discovered 
in  the  Atlantic  is  27,366  feet  in  a  small  depression  about  100  miles  north  of  Porto 
Rico. 

Distribution  of  the  Lands. — Only  one  of  the  six  great  continents,  Aus- 
tralia, is  wholly  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere;  North  America,  Europe  and  Asia, 
excepting  a  few  Asiatic  islands,  are  entirely  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  Much 
the  larger  part  of  the  lands  lies  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  forming  almosta  con- 
tinuous ring  around  the  North  Pole,  and  stretching  away  to  the  southward  in  long, 
irregular  masses  which  taper  into  points. 


20  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD. 

The  continents  are  the  largest  areas  of  land.  Europe  and  Asia  are  really  one 
continent,  but  on  account  of  their  vast  extent,  it  is  more  convenient  to  treat  each 
of  them  as  one  of  the  "  Grand  Divisions." 

Hidden  under  the  edge  of  the  oceans  that  lap  the  continental  shores  is  usually 
found  a  belt  of  sea-bottom  sloping  very  gently  seaward  until  a  depth  of  about 
600  feet  is  reached,  where  the  slope  becomes  more  abrupt  and  soon  reaches  oceanic 
depths.  This  belt  of  sea-floor  is  called  the  continental  shelf.  Sometimes  it  is 
wide  and  of  great  importance,  because  in  these  shallow  waters  the  larger  sea  fish- 
eries of  the  world  are  grouped. 

Besides  the  continents  there  are  two  classes  of  islands — continental  and  oceanic 
islands.  Most  of  the  continental  islands  are  near  the  continents  and  are  formed 
of  the  same  rocks,  such  as  limestones,  sandstones,  granites,  etc.  The  largest  con- 
tinental islands  are  Greenland,  New  Guinea,  Borneo,  Madagascar  and  Sumatra. 

Oceanic  islands  may  be  very  remote  from  large  land  masses,  as  most  of  the 
Pacific  Islands,  or  they  may  be  comparatively  near  the  continents,  as  the  Canary 
Islands  or  the  Lesser  Antilles.  They  are  chiefly  the  result  of  volcanic  outpourings 
from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  or  are  upbuilt  by  coral  insects  in  shallow  waters. 

Movements  of  the  Earth's  Crust. — We  know  that  large  parts  of  the 
land  masses  were  once  under  water,  for  many  of  the  rocks  were  formed  by  de- 
posits of  sands  or  the  bones  of  marine  animals  on  the  sea- floor.  This  shows  that 
the  earth's  crust  is  subject  to  very  slow  up-and-down  movements  which  are  still 
in  progress,  and  may  be  best  observed  along  the  margins  of  the  seas;  for  we  speak 
of  the  gradual  uplifting  of  parts  offthe  coasts  of  Scandinavia,  of  the  gradual  sink- 
ing of  the  coast  of  Xew  Jersey,  and  of  other  similar  movements  that  are  now  in 
progress. 

These  movements  which  lift  or  lower  wide  areas  of  land  are  very  different  from 
the  quick,  sharp  earthquake  shocks  that  sometimes  lower  the  level  of  areas  by  a 
number  of  feet,  as  in  the  New  Madrid  earthquake  of  1811. 

Another  kind  of  earth-movement  is  that  resulting  from  the  contraction  of  the 
earth's  crust  due  to  cooling;  by  this  contraction  the  rocks  of  many  areas  may 
be  crushed  together,  folded,  broken,  and  here  and  there  lifted  into  lofty  mountain 
ranges.  Other  mountains  may  be  the  result  simply  of  the  dissection  of  high  pla- 
teaus by  running  water  which  excavates  valleys  through  the  plateaus.  The  parts 
not  worn  away  may  be  called  mountains.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Catskill 
Mountains. 

Forms  of  the  Lands. — The  earth  has  a  great  diversity  of  land  forms,  and 
they  have  marked  effect  in  shaping  the  distribution  and  occupations  of  man.  Coasts 
that  are  high,  rocky  and  without  inlets,  like  the  southern  shore  of  Sicily,  repel 
seafarers  and  can  have  little  or  no  shipping  trade.  Low,  sandy,  uniform  coasts 
sloping  very  gradually  into  the  sea,  like  the  western  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Pechili, 
China,  are  impediments  to  commerce.  Few  Chinese  who  live  near  this  coast 
follow  the  sea  for  a  living.  Much  of  the  time  the  sea  is  gnawing  at  the  coasts, 
eating  away  the  softer  rocks,  and  thus  forming  gulfs  and  bays,  while  the  harder 
rocks,  resisting  the  attacks  of  the  waves,  jut  out  as  headlands  and  capes. 

The  Atlantic  coasts  of  the  United  States  are  mostly  low,  with  many  deep 
recesses  where  shipping  is  safe  from  ocean  storms.  Such  a  coast  is  highly  favor- 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD.  21 

able  for  commerce.  The  Pacific  coast  of  our  country,  on  the  other  hand,  is  high 
and  rocky,  with  only  a  few  good  harbors ;  but  these  are  so  favorably  distributed 
that  they  admirably  serve  the  needs  of  commerce. 

.As  our  Globe  shows,  Europe,  Asia  and  North  America  have  very  broken 
coast  lines,  and  the  sea  in  many  places  penetrates  deeply  into  the  land,  giving 
the  inhabitants  large  harbor  facilities.  On  the  other  hand,  Africa,  South  Amer- 
ica and  Australia  have  comparatively  unbroken  coast  lines,  and  in  this  are  at  a 
disadvantage  in  commercial  pursuits. 

Mountain  Kanges. — Our  Globe  shows  the  chief  mountain  ranges  which 
extend  along  the  coasts  or  through  the  interior  of  the  continents  and  islands. 
They  have  large  influence  in  fixing  boundary  lines  between  nations  and  upon 
commerce  and  climate.  With  the  Pyrenees,  between  France  and  Spain;  the 
Alps,  between  Austria  and  Italy;  and  the  Himalayas,  between  Tibet  and  India, 
we  readily  conclude  that  mountain  chains  often  form  not  only  natural  boundaries 
between  nations,  but  also  between  the  languages  of  men. 

They  often  impede  commerce.  Along  the  southeast  coast  of  China  are  a 
number  of  fine  natural  ports,  such  as  Amoy  and  Fuchau,  but  their  importance  is 
greatly  diminished  by  the  fact  that  mountains  stretch  between  them  and  the 
densely  peopled  valley  of  the  Yangtse,  so  that  trade  between  this  coast  line  and 
the  interior  is  difficult  and  costly.  If  it  were  not  for  the  Arlberg  tunnel,  inter- 
course between  Austria  and  Switzerland  would  be  very  difficult;  and  Italy  would 
be  almost  cut  off  from  France  and  Central  Europe  if  the  Mont  Cenis,  St.  Gott- 
hard,  and  Simplon  tunnels  had  not  been  constructed  through  the  Alps. 

All  the  railroads  from  the  Pacific  that  have  climbed  the  Andes  Mountains  of 
South  America  rise  two  miles  or  more  into  the  air.  It  is  fortunate  for  the  United 
States  that  nature  provided  comparatively  low  passes  among  the  Appalachian 
ranges  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  as  gate- 
ways for  great  railroad  routes;  and  that  the  passes  through  which  our  trains 
cross  our  great  Western  mountain  ranges  are  reached  by  long  and  gentle  slopes, 
so  that  few  gradients  are  very  steep. 

Mountains  are  useful  in  many  ways.  They  supply  large  water  power.  Our 
Western  miners  use  this  power  to  drive  mining  machinery.  The  wheels  of  indus- 
try in  Switzerland  are  turned  by  the  torrents  that  descend  the  Alps.  Most  moun- 
tains are  clad  with  forests,  and  mountains  are  among  the  largest  sources  of  forest 
wealth.  Water  is  retained  in  the  form  of  snow  and  ice  on  the  higher  slopes  till 
it  is  needed  in  the  summer  season  of  crops  for  irrigation  far  below.  Mountain 
scenery  is  as  substantial  a  source  of  gain  as  wheat  or  hay.  Tourists  leave  mil- 
lions of  dollars  in  Switzerland  every  year,  and  our  finest  mountain  regions  are 
attracting  more  sightseers  every  year.  Mountains  also  supply  a  large  part  of  the 
metals  and  minerals,  and  are  therefore  the  scene  of  large  mining"industries. 

In  every  land  we  may  see  the  effect  of  mountain  ranges  upon  climate.  Our 
Pacific  ranges  prevent  the  free  circulation  of  rain-laden  winds  from  the  Pacific, 
which  part  with  their  moisture  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  so 
that  the  great  mountains  to  the  east  of  them  are  arid.  The  Alps  shield  the  Kiviera 
from  the  cold  northeast  winds,  so  that  Nice  is  warmer  than -Koine  in  winter. 
The  mountains  of  Scandinavia  stop  the  warm  moist  winds  from  the  Atlantic,  so 


22 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD. 


that  the  Atlantic  coasts  enjoy  the  milder  oceanic  climate,  while  the  Baltic  coast 
is  very  cold  in  winter. 

The  highest  mountain  in  the  world  is  Mount  Everest,  29, 002  feet,  in  the  Hima- 
layas, on  the  border  between  Tibet  and  Nepal;  the  highest  mountain  of  North 
America  is  Mount  McKinley,  in  Alaska,  20,300  feet;  of  South  America,  Acon- 
cagua, in  Argentina,  23,081  feet;  of  Europe,  Mont  Blanc,  in  France,  15,780;  in 
Africa,  Kilimanjaro,  19,680;  in  Australia,  ML  Townsend,  7,347. 

Plains  and  Plateaus. — Most  flat  lands  of  the  world  lie  between  parallel 
mountain  ranges  that  are  often  very  far  apart.  Sometimes  they  lie  in  a  narrow 
belt  along  the  sea,  and  then  are  called  coastal  plains.  When  plains  rise  to  a  height 
of  more  than  1,000  feet  above  sea  level,  they  are  usually  called  table-lands  or  pla- 


SOME  FORMS  OF  MOUNTAINS. 

teaus.  These  plains  and  plateaus  are  not  a  mere  dead  level,  for  they  have  undu- 
lations, ridges  and  valleys;  but  these  heights  or  hollows  are  not  sufficiently  pro- 
nounced to  affect  their  generally  level  character.  In  the  United  States  we  see 
the  Atlantic  coastal  plain  between  the  Appalachians  and  the  sea,  and  the  vast 
region  of  plain,  prairie  and  plateau  that  stretches  between  the  Appalachians 
and  our  great  Western  ranges. 

Every  continent  has  wide  plains  far  inland  without  sufficient  rainfall  to  nur- 
ture forests  or  cultivated  crops.  Grass  here  takes  the  place  of  larger  vegetation, 
the  pastoral  life  is  developed  and  grazing  is  the  chief  pursuit. 

Valleys. — Between  neighboring  mountain  chains  are  valleys,  wrhich  usually 
rorm  the  bed  of  rivers;  and  rivers  flowing  across  plains  and  plateaus  excavate  many 
valleys.  Valleys  through  which  navigable  rivers  flow  are  the  most  easily  devel- 
oped parts  of  the  continents.  It  was  these  valleys  that  were  settled  first  when 
man  began  to  carry  his  industries  and  commerce  into  the  interior  of  the  conti- 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD.  23 

nenis.  Thus  great  river  valleys  came  to  be  called  the  creators  of  history,  because 
in  the  early  days  of  development  it  was  in  the  valleys  of  the  Nile,  Ganges,  Indus 
and  other  large  rivers  that  the  human  race  made  most  progress. 

Water  Divides  and  Basins. — The  boundary  between  slopes  leading  to 
different  streams  or  rivers  is  called  a  divide.  The  divide  is  often  easily  recogniz- 
able. It  may  be  the  crest  of  a  mountain  range,  or  at  least  a  ridge  that  is  plainly 
above  the  general  level.  Frequently,  however,  on  plains  and  plateaus  the  divide 
is  almost  or  quite  [indistinguishable.  In  this  case  its  course  is  uncertain  and  vari- 
able. There  are  rivers  in  Canada  where  the  divide  passes  through  some  small  lake 
that  is  so  evenly  balanced  between  two  water  systems  that  it  sends  a  little  stream 
to  each  of  them;  another  illustration  is  Two  Ocean  Creek,  in  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park,  where  a  bit  of  water  is  diverted  sometimes  toward  the  Pacific 
and  sometimes  toward  the  Atlantic. 

The  area  included  within  the  divide  that  separates  a  stream  and  its  tributaries 
from  another  river  system  is  called  the  basin  of  that  stream.  Thus  the  basin  of 
the  Missouri  River  is  the  entire  area  drained  by  that  river;  and  the  basin  of  the 
Mississippi  system  includes  the  vast  area  whose  drainage  is  carried  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  through  the  Mississippi  delta.  The  term  watershed  is  sometimes  erro- 
neously applied  to  a  river  basin.  It  is  more  correctly  used  to  designate  a  divide, 
but  the  terms  '"'divide"  or  "  water  parting  "  for  the  boundaries  between  river 
basins  are  preferable. 

Lakes. — The  irregularities  of  the  earth's  surface  due  to  crumpling  or  erosion 
have  left  many  depressions  below  the  general  level  into  which  drainage  is  drawn, 
thus  forming  lakes.  Most  of  these  lakes  overflow,  and  their  surplus  is  discharged 
by  streams  into  the  sea.  The  mineral  matter  that  accumulates  is  thus  removed 
and  the  lake  waters  remain  fresh.  Other  lakes  are  formed  in  depressions  where 
there  is  no  outflow  because  the  \vater  receipts  are  fully  counterbalanced  by  evap- 
oration. In  such  lakes  the  salts  washed  from  the  soil  and  carried  into  the  lake 
basins  accumulate,;  the  waters  are  therefore  not  potable,  and  the  lakes  are  called 
salt  lakes.  The  Great  Salt  Lake  of  Utah  is  the  most  important  lake  of  this  kind 
in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  One  of  the  most  famous  salt  lakes  is  the  Dead  Sea, 
in  Palestine,  which  lies  far  below  the  level  of  the  oceans  and  fills  a  small 
hollow  surrounded  by  highlands. 

Large  lakes  are  very  useful  in  commerce,  because  they  permit  the  transportation 
of  freight  in  the  interior  of  the  continents  at  small  cost.  The  largest  system  of 
lake  navigation  in^the  world  is  provided  by  the  Great  Lakes  of  North  America,  on 
which  steamers  carry  at  low  freight  rates  many  times  the  tonnage  of  commodi- 
ties that  are  borne  through  the  Suez  Canal. 

Distribution  of  Animal  Life. — No  lands  are  so  desolate  that  they  do  not 
give  support  to  a  considerable  variety  of  life.  Peary  found  flowers  and  grass> 
musk  oxen  and  hare  on  the  most  northern  bit  of  land  which  exploration  has 
revealed  to  us.  The  animals  that  are  most  useful  to  man  cover  the  whole  of  the  tem- 
perate regions,  and  recently  their  numbers"  have  been  increasing  in  the  tropics. 
The  horse,  which  is  found  everywhere  in  temperate  and  moderately  warm  coun- 
tries, is  being  introduced  to  some  extent  into  the  tropical  Congo  region.  At  seventy 
stations  in  the  Congo  State,  cattle  from  Europe  are  being  successfully  reared. 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD. 


25 


Sheep  are  raised  in  most  inhabited  regions,  woolless  varieties  being  reared  in  hot 
countries.  The  range  of  the  dog  as  a  draft  animal  extends  through  the  north- 
ern third  of  North  America,  and  far  towards  the  Pole,  where  he  hauls  sledges, 
while  in  Belgium  and  some  other  parts  of  Europe  he  draws  carts  to  market.  The 
hunting  and  fishing  tribes  of  northern  Europe  and  Asia  use  the  reindeer  as  their 
means  of  transport.  The  yak  is  the  conspicuous  pack  and  saddle  animal  over  the 
Himalayan  passes  and  on  the  high  plain  of  Tibet.  The  one-humped  camel,  or 
dromedary,  is  the  "  ship  of  the  desert "  in  the  northern  third  of  Africa,  while  the 
stronger  bactrian  camel  (two  humps)  is  the  beast  of  burden  in  central  Asia.  The 
donkey  is  nowhere  so  important  as  in  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean,  while 
in  America  he  is  chiefly  represented  by  his  progeny,  the  male. 

The  fisheries  are  the  largest  source  of  wealth  derived  from  the  wild  animals. 
British  America,  northern  Russia  and  Siberia  are  the  regions  from  which  most  of 
the  furs  are  derived,  but  the  supply  has  been  greatly  _ 
diminished  by  overhunting.  Civilized  governments 
now  endeavor  to  protect  all  wild  animals  that  are 
useful  to  man  so  that  they  may  not  be  exterminated. 
There  are,  however,  no  game  laws  far  the  protection 
of  harmful  beasts  of  prey,  and  most  of  the  larger 
carnivorous  animals,  such  as  the  lion,  tiger,  leopard 
and  others,  are  being  constantly  depleted  in  number 
and  are  doomed  to  complete  destruction  within  the 
next  few  decades. 

Distribution  of  Vegetable  Life. — Most 
human  occupations  are  confined  to  the  regions  in 
which  forests  and  cultivable  and  grass  lands  are 
predominant.  The  greatest  regions  of  agriculture 
are  in  the  northern  and  southern  temperate  zones; 
grassy  plains  of  enormous  extent  in  North  and  South  America  and  Asia 
nourish  countless  flocks  and  herds.  Most  of  the  wood  supplies  of  the  world 
that  enter  largely  into  commerce  come  from  the  great  forest  areas  of  the  north 
temperate  zone  which  girdle  the  land  surface  between  the  Arctic  Circle  and 
the  30th  parallel,  making  the  United  States,  Canada  and  Russia  the  foremost 
wood-producing  countries  of  the  world.  Vast  tropical  forests,  especially  in 
Latin  America  and  Africa,  yield  hardwoods  that  are  in  much  demand,  and, 
above  all,  rubber,  which  is  extracted  from  a  considerable  variety  of  trees  and 
vines. 

The  Races  of  Men. — There  are  a  great  many  divisions  of  the  human  race, 
and  detailed  study  shows  that  many  of  them  are  distinguished  from  one  another 
only  by  very  slight  differences.  Formerly  classified  into  five  great  groups,  a 
process  of  simplification  has  finally  reduced  them  to  three  types — the  black, 
yellow,  and  white  races.  The  population  of  the  world  is  now  estimated  at  about 
1,503,000,000,  of  which  over  150,000,000  are  believed  to  be  included  in  the 
black,  600,000,000  in  the  yellow,  and  750,000,000  in  the  white  types. 

The  races  of  the  black  type  are  least  civilized.  The  native  home  of  the  greater 
part  of  them  is  in  Africa ,  south  of  the  Sahara,  and  they  are  classed  in  the  two  sub- 


THE  BLACK  TYPE. 


26 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 


Li  HUNG  CHANG — THE  YELLOW 
TYPE. 


divisions  of  negroes  in  the  North  and  Bantus,  who  inhabit  the  whole  of  the  great 
table-lands  of  that  continent  south  of  the  Sudan.  They  are  also  thinly  scattered  in 
parts  of  southern  Asia  and  in  the  Asian  and  some  of  the  Pacific  islands,  the  ab- 
origines of  Australia,  the  Papuans  of  New  Guinea,  and  Yeddahs  of  Ceylon,  and 
the  Negritos  of  the  Philippines,  being  most  prom- 
inent. For  three  centuries  the  siave  traders  carried 
large  numbers  of  African  blacks  to  the  Americas, 
where  millions  of  them  now  live.  The  black  races 
are  backward  in  intellectual  development,  and  have 
never  succeeded  in  establishing  perfected  social 
organizations;  but  those  of  Africa  in  particular  have 
shown  themselves  to  be  susceptible  of  great  im- 
provement. The  black  .type  has  relatively  the 
smallest  part  in  the  world's  trade. 

The  races  of  the  yellow  type  include  the  Mon- 
golians of  Asia,  the  Turks  and  Magyars  or  Huns 
of  Europe,  the  Eskimos  and  Indians  of  America, 
and  the  peoples  of  the  Malay  and  Polynesian 
islands.  The  Mongol,*  the  most  important  and  best 
characterized  branch  of  the  yellow  type,  has  a 
number  of  varieties  (Chinese,  Japanese,  Annamese, 
etc.)  living  in  east  Asia.  The  Japanese  and  Chi- 
nese are  highly  civilized,  and  take  an  important  part  in  the  world's  commerce,. 
The  Malayan  races  are  widely  disseminated  over  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and 
include  the  Ilovas,  the  most  progressive  race  of  Madagascar.  The  Tartars  and 

Turks  advanced  from  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia 
and  settled  in  eastern  Europe.  The  Finns  and 
Magyars  were  also  Asiatic  emigrants  who  settled 
in  northern  and  central  Europe. 

The  white  races,  comprising  the  most  civilized, 
advanced  and  progressive  peoples  of  the  world,  are 
divided  into  three  great  groups:  Hamitic,  Semitic, 
and  Aryan.  The  Hamites  of  North  Africa 
(Berbers,  Tuaregs,  Gallas,  Somalis,  and  others)  are 
as  dark  in  color  as  many  races  of  the  black  type,  are 
fanatical  Mohammedans,  and  oppose  the  introduc- 
tion among  them  of  Western  civilization.  The 
Semites  include  the  Arabs  of  Arabia,  Syria  and 
North  Africa,  and  the  Jews  who  are  scattered  over 
the  whole  world.  The  Aryans  are  subdivided  into 
the  Keltic,  Teutonic,  Romanic  and  Slavonic  races, 
who  inhabit  the  most  of  Europe.  They  have 
long  been  spreading  rapidly,  and  now  occupy  nearly  a  third  of  Asia,  have 
political  supremacy  over  most  of  Africa,  and  have  settled  there  in  large  numbers, 
especially  in  the  north  and  south,  and  inhabit  almost  the  whole  of  Europe,  most  of 
America  and  the  larger  part  of  Oceania.  The  Romanic  races  of  south  Europe  have 


WASHINGTON — THE  WHITE 
TYPE. 


28  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

occupied  Latin  America,  the  Teutonic  races  of  north  Europe  have  spread  over 
North  America  and  Australia,  and  the  Slavonic  Russians  have  occupied  the 
whole  of  north  Asia.  The  Teutonic  races  command  the  greater  part  of  the  world's 
commerce,  have  done  more  than  any  other  branch  of  the  human  family  to  estab- 
lish good  government  under  which  life  and  property  are  protected  and  business 
enterprises  are  fostered,  and  have  borne  the  most  prominent  part  in  extending 
civilization  and  developing  natural  resources. 

Mail's  Conquest  of  Nature. — All  lower  animals  collect  the  food  they  need, 
and  many  of  them  are  also  humble  manufacturers.  The  bee  makes  honey,  the 
spider  spins  its  web,  the  beaver  dams  the  streams,  and  many  animals  build 
shelters. 

In  his  primitive  state,  man  was  much  like  the  lower  animals.  He  collected  the 
necessities  of  life,  and  was  a  manufacturer  on  a  small  scale.  He  was  able  also 
through  his  intellectual  superiority  to  fashion  rude  implements  to  aid  him.  in  his 
work,  and  this  the  lower  animals  could  not  do.  Animal  instinct  was  the  impel- 
ling influence  that  moved  man  in  this  primitive  stage. 

Experience  constantly  enlightened  man.  It  taught  him  how  to  make  better 
implements,  and  helped  him  in  many  ways.  One  idea  that  gradually  dawned 
upon  him  was  that  if  he  planted  and  cared  for  certain  vegetable  growths,  they 
would  provide  him  with  more  and  better  food  than  if  he  depended  simply  upon 
wild  fruits,  grains  and  roots.  He  began  to  till  the  soil. 

Each  generation  discovered  methods  for  better  tillage,  found 'new  activities, 
and  invented  better  methods  of  doing  things.  Each  bequeathed  what  it  learned 
to  its  successors;  and  so  from  age  to  age  man  benefited  by  experience  that  came 
down  to  him  from  his  fathers. 

The  Era  of  Scientific  Progress. — At  last  man  reached  the  stage  in  which 
he  was  able  to  inquire  deeply  into  the  secrets  of  nature,  and  to  make  great  discov- 
eries and  inventions  that  multiply  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life,  and  the 
products  of  human  brain  and  hand.  This  is  the  present  era  of  scientific  develop- 
ment. 

"We  may  briefly  consider  one  phase  of  this  development — that  of  transporta- 
tion and  communication. 

Slow  and  poor  transportation  has  meant  starvation  at  times,  as  in  China  and 
in  the  England  of  the  Middle  Ages.  This  is  when  roads  are  so  poor  that  people 
die  in  one  part  of  a  country  before  grain  can  reach  them  from  another.  There 
was  little  commerce  between  Asia  and  Europe  when  boats  were  afraid  to  venture 
out  to  sea,  and  only  camel  trains  at  Constantinople  brought  the  East  and  West 
within  touch. 

Four  hundred  years  ago  only  a  few  ocean  vessels  had  dared  to  venture  far  out 
of  sight  of  land.  The  sailing-vessel  then  commanded  the  seas  for  three  centuries 
until  about  1840,  when  steamships  began  to  supplant  them.  They  travel,  on  an 
average,  four  times  as  fast  as  the  sailing-vessel. 

Columbus's  first  trip  across  the  Atlantic  was  made  in  seventy  days.  Nearly 
300  years  later  the  average  time  across  the  ocean  was  about  42  days;  then  steam- 
ships brought  in  the  era  of  fast  travel.  The  first  steamship  crossed  the  Atlantic 
from  Savannah  to  Liverpool  in  22  days.  The  time  was  reduced  until  to-day  the 


30  INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

"ocean  greyhounds"  pass  between  Sandy  *Iook  and  Queenstown  in  less  than 
six  days,  providing  for  their  passengers  overy  luxury  and  convenience. 

Ocean  transportation  became  not  only  fast,  but  cheap.  "When  iron  and  steel 
were  substituted  for  \vood  in  shipbuilding,  it  became  possible  to  increase  the  size 
of  steamships;  at  the  same  time  the  cost  of  forcing  them  through  the  water  was 
lessened  by  the  invention  of  better  furnaces,  boilers  and  engines.  These  improve- 
ments lowered  the  cost  of  steam  power  between  1870  and  1900  about  40  per  cent. 
Nearly  four  times  as  much  steam  power  is  now  derived  from  a  pound  of  coal  as  in 
1860.  With  greater  carrying  capacity  and  much  less  expenditure  per  ton  for 
propelling  steamships,  their  owners  were  able  to  reduce  freight  rates. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  why  commodities  that  once  were  luxuries  are  now 
found  in  nearly  every  humble  home  is  because  they  are  distributed  so  cheaply  over 
the  world  by  present  methods  of  transportation. 

Transportation. — As  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  earth's  surface  is  ocean, 
most  commodities  carried  from  one  nation  to  another  go  by  sea  routes.  Water 
transportation  is  cheaper  than  land  transport,  and  therefore  lakes,  rivers  and 
canals  are  important  trade  routes  in  most  countries,  though  they  lose  some  of 
their  importance  after  the  development  of  adequate  railroad  systems.  The  lead- 
ing nations  spend  large  sums  in  the  improvement  of  their  waterways.  In  our 
country  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  supply  over  9,000  miles  of  navigation. 
The  Hudson  River,  connected  with  the  Great  Lakes  by  the  Erie  Canal,  has  a 
freight  tonnage  of  over  15,000,000  a  year.  Large  ocean  vessels  ascend  the  Dela- 
ware to  Philadelphia,  and  this  river  annually  floats  about  14,000,000  tons  of 
freight.  The  coal,  lumber,  grain  and  other  heavy  commodities  carried  on  the 
Ohio,  give  it  a  freight  tonnage  of  14,000,000  a  year.  The  Mississippi  carries 
about  as  much  freight  as  the. Ohio;  and  about  10,000,000  passengers  are  borne 
from  one  place  to  another  on  steamboats  of  the  Mississippi  system  every  year. 

With  two  hundred  thousand  miles  of  railroad,  the  United  States  has  a  greater 
length  of  railways  than  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  more  than  a  third  of  the  world's 
mileage. 

Long  ocean  routes  afford  the  cheapest  freight  rates.  Freight  charges  are  nec- 
essarily somewhat  higher  on  large  lakes  than  on  the  ocean,  because  lake  vessels  are 
smaller  and  navigation  is  restricted  by  small  connecting  rivers  and  canals.  The 
actual  cost  of  transporting  freight  on  railroads  is  about  twice  as  much  as  on  rivers 
and  canals. 

The  Panama  Ship  Canal. — The  greatest  of  modern  devices  for  shortening 
trade  routes,  and  thus  reducing  the  prices  of  commodities  by  cheapening  transpor- 
tation, is  the  ship  canal,  by  which  the  length  of  many  ocean  routes  is  reduced  by 
thousands  of  miles.  Some  of  these  enterprises,  like  the  Suez  CanaJ,  are  the 
property  of  private  companies,  and  were  developed  to  make  money  by  canal  tolls. 
The  United  States  government,  however,  has  assumed  the  responsibility,  too  great 
for  private  enterprise,  of  carrying  out  the  unfi  nished  work  of  digging  a  canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  about  41  miles  in  length;  and  has. been  granted  civil 
and  military  authority  (excepting  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon)  over  a  strip 
of  10  miles  across  Panama,  including  the  canal.  This  is  known  as  the  Panama 
Canal  zone.  Congress,  on  June  15th,  1906,  decided  to  build  a  high-level 


INTERNATIONAL    GKOGKAIMI K  'A  I.    HISTORY    <>K    TIIK    \VoKJ. I>. 


31 


or  lock  canal.  By  shortening  the  length  of  sea  routes  between  the  Atlantic 
ports  of  Europe  and  America  and  the  Pacific  ports  of  America  the  canal  will 
have  a  profound  influence  upon  the  world's  commerce.  A  few  examples  will 
show  how  greatly  these  routes  will  be  shortened. 

The  steamer  voyage  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  now  over  13, 000  miles 
by  the  Magellan  route,  will  be  reduced  to  5,299  miles;  to  Guayaquil,  the  best 
Pacific  port  of  northern  South  America,  the  saving  of  distance  from  New  York, 
New  Orleans  and  Liverpool  will  be,  respectively,  7,500,  8,500  and  5,000  miles. 
All  routes  between  Europe  or  the  United  States  and  any  of  the  Pacific  American 
countries  north  of  Peru  will  be  shortened  by  5,000  to  9,000  miles. 

The  changes  that  the  Panama  Canal  will  make  in  the  routes  to  east  Asia  will 
be  almost  equally  great.  The  shortest  way  to  reach  all  the  ports  of  Japan  and 
north  China  from  the  Atlantic  ports  of  North  America  will  be  by  Panama.  On 


JICARO 

0     10   2U         40         60          80  iluriato  rtJ-Ttaercw  Pt. 

Provwed  Panama  Canal  ^^^m  /  '  I  (  '  /  ;  •  ; 

__  it    •,          i  .....i.....  I  -*-  ./I.  Vv  J.        *      _£*  J 

Panama  Railroad  gi,o  ''Loneitude  'West 


This  map  shows  the  great  value  of  Panama's  position  to  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

the  other  hand,  the  shortest  route  to  India,  Burma  and  other  points  to  the 
west  of  Singapore  will  continue  to  be  the  Suez  Canal.  The  Asiatic  trade  divide 
between  the  Panama  and  Suez  routes  for  t>he  Atlantic  ports  of  North  America 
will  nearly  coincide  with  the  line  Manila-Hongkong.  For  example)  the  distance 
between  New  York  and  Manila  via  Panama  and  Honolulu  is  11,642  miles;  via 
Suez  and  Singapore,  11,601  miles.  The  Suez  Canal  will  continue  to  be  much  the 
shorter  route  for  the  European  trade  with,  east  Asia. 

Panama  will  offer  a  much  shorter  route  than  Suez  for  the  American  trade 
with  Australia,  but  for  European  ports  the  Suez  Canal  Avill  have  the  advantage. 
The  Suez  Canal  shortened  the  distance  between  England  and  India  by  5,000 
miles.  Among  the  other  ship  canals  that  have  opened  short  cuts  and  reduced  from 
one  to  three  days  the  time  required  for  steamer  voyages  are  the  Kaiser  "NVilhelm 
Canal  in  Germany  and  the  Corinth  Canal  in  Greece. 

Railroads. — In  the  United  States  railroads  are  only  about  seventy-five  years 
old,  but  this  country  has  a  mileage,  counting  double  tracks  and  switching  tracks, 
that  is  greater  than  the  distance  from  the  earth  to  the  moon,  and  more  miles  of 


32  INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

track  than  the  whole  world  possessed  in  1860.  Kailroads  supply  most  civilized 
lands  with  rapid  and  comparatively  cheap  transportation. 

The  most  important  railroads  are  those  extending  across  the  continents, 
east  and  west.  They  form  parts  of  transportation  lines  girdling  the  earth; 
and  as  railroad  trains  move  much  more  rapidly  than  steamships  and  the  speed  of 
both  has  been  much  accelerated  by  improved  machinery,  the  time  required  to 
travel  around  the  earth  has  been  greatly  reduced  in  recent  years. 

In  1904  the  .•luuTcgate  length  of  railroad  track  in  the  United  States  was 
297,073  miles;  46,74:3  locomotives  were  required  to  haul  the  passenger  and 
freight  trains  and  do  the  switching;  there  were  39,752  passenger  cars  and 
1,692,194  freight  cars,  and  in  these  cars,  during  the  year,  715,419,682  passengers 
and  1,309,899,165  tons  of  freight  were  carried. 

In  parts  of  Africa  freight  is  still  carried  on  the  backs  of  men,  and  there  are  other 
regions  where  ox-teams  or  pack-mules  are  the  only  means  of  freight  carriage.  Such 
transportation  is  very  expensive.  The  Germans  say  that  the  cost  of  freightage 
in  Africa  by  ox  wagon  is  twenty  times  as  much  as  on  the  Prussian  railroads;  and 
that  the  cost  of  transport  on  the  backs  of  men  is  forty  times  as  much. 

We  have  long  known  of  a  cheap  way  of  moving  fluid  commodities.  Water, 
petroleum  oil,  and  illuminating  gas  are  conveyed  long  distances  in  iron  pipes. 
If  we  did  not  have  this  cheap  method  of  distributing  water,  it  could  not  be  sup- 
plied to  us  at  such  small  cost. 

It  is  quite  recently  that  the  wonderful  properties  of  electricity  and  the  meth- 
ods of  best  utilizing  them  were  discovered.  But  to-day,  with  the  aid  of  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  miles  of  electric  wire,  men  in  most  parts  of  the  world  transact 
business  with  one  another  much  as  though  they  lived  in  the  same  town;  and  the 
postal  service,  a  cheaper  and  slower  means  of  communication,  now  extends  into 
the  heart  of  Africa  and  other  regions  of  which  we  had  never  heard  a  quarter  of 
a  century  ago. 

Transportation  in  Cities  and  Large  Towns. — The  enormous  growth 
of  cities  in  area  and  population  has  revolutionized  their  means  of  transportation 
because  the  old  omnibus  and  horse  car  are  too  slow  and  in  all  respects  inadequate 
to  the  present  demands  of  business  men.  Great  improvements  have  been  intro- 
duced, especially  in  the  United  States,  where  the  application  of  electricity  (over- 
head, underground  and  third-rail  systems)  has  practically  done  away  with  other 
forms  of  traction.  In  the  twelve  years  ending  in  1902  the  mileage  of  the  electric 
lines  increased  from  1,262  to  21,907  in  the  United  States,  while  there  was  a  great 
decrease  in  the  length  of  lines  operated  by  other  forms  of  power.  In  1902  there 
were  in  this  country  only  241  miles  of  street  car  routes  that  were  operated  by 
underground  cable,  170  miles  using  steam  and  259  miles  employing  horses  or 
mules  for  motive  power. 

But  surface  street-car  routes  are  very  limited  in  speed,  for  rapid  transit  is 
impossible  in  crowded  thoroughfares.  Two  hours  or  more  are  required  by  the 
ordinary  trolley  lines  of  New  York  to  reach  some  parts  of  the  city  boundary 
from  the  great  business  district  at  the  south  end  of  Manhattan  Island.  Business 
men  cannot  afford  this  loss  of  time,  and  so  systems  of  elevated  and  underground 
roads,  with  electricity  for  motive  power,  are  now  in  operation  in  New  York  and 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD.  33 

Boston,  elevated  roads  in  Chicago,  and  plans  have  been  made  for  the  large  ex- 
tension of  these  rapid  transit  roads.  The  New  York  Subway  Railroad,  the  largest 
system  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  was  opened  on  October  27,  1904.  The  part  of  this 
system  between  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  and  96th  Street  has  four  tracks,  on  which 
express  trains  run  at  the  rate  of  25  miles  an  hour;  and  the  local  trains,  stopping 
at  every  station,  make  from  14  to  18  miles  an  hour.  London  and  Paris  also  have 
large  systems  of  underground  rapid-transit  roads.  '  • 

Electric  Roads  between  Cities  and  Towns. — A  new  development  in 
the  United  States  is  electric  railroads,  called  Interurban  lines,  extending 
from  the  cities  through  many  towns,  and  with  numerous  stations  in  the  purely 
farming  districts.  The  cars  run  at  high  speed,  and  some  of  the  trains  in  Ohio 
are  now  provided  with  sleeping  cars  for  the  long-distance  routes.  There  were  in 
1905  about  8,000  miles  of  tKese  roads,  and  Ohio,  Michigan,  Indiana  and  Illinois 
have  the  most  extensive  and  efficient  high-speed  rural  railroads  in  the  country. 
These  country  electric  systems  are  little  developed,  as  yet,  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, owing  to  the  lesser  density  of  population  in  that  section.  The  rural  trolley 
service  is  being  rapidly  introduced  in  parts  of  New  England,  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania and  all  the  central  States.  The  trolley  freight  car  is  also  coming  into 
use,  to  the  advantage  of  the  farmers,  whose  means  of  reaching  markets  are  thus 
greatly  increased.  As  the  cost  of  operation  is  small,  these  roads  compete  suc- 
cessfully with  the  steam  lines,  and  the  development  of  this  system  of  transpor- 
tation, it  is  believed,  will  be  very  large. 

Automobiles. — In  recent  years  gasoline,  steam  and  electricity  applied  to  the 
propulsion  of  vehicles  on  streets  and  roads  have  developed,  on  a  very  large  scale, 
a  new  means  of  transportation.  Vehicles  thus  driven  are  called  automobiles,  and 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  them  are  now  in  use  in  the  leading  countries.  They  are 
used  not  only  as  pleasure  and  touring  carriages,  but  also  for  freight  hauling,  and 
to  some  extent  they  are  taking  the  place  in  cities  of  ordinary  freight  trucks.  Au- 
tomobile roads  have  been  built  in  some  newly  developing  countries  in  advance 
of  the  construction  of  railroads.  One  of  them  in  Madagascar  extends  from  the  In- 
dian Ocean  to  the  capital,  Tananarive,  about  150  miles  in  the  interior,  and  auto- 
mobiles are  daily  carrying  freight  and  passengers.  Two  automobile  freight  roads, 
one  300  and  another  500  miles  long,  are  being  built  (1905)  in  the  Congo  Free 
State.  The  great  usefulness  of  automobiles  has  been  proven,  and  vast  capital  is 
now  invested  in  their  manufacture. 

Submarine  Boats« — These  boats  as  yet  are  used  only  as  torpedo  boats,  their 
special  advantage  being  that  they  can  approach  an  enemy's  ship  under  water 
without  being  discovered,  and  launch  a  torpedo  at  short  range.  France  has  built 
more  of  them  than  any  other  nation,  but  they  are  now  a  feature  of  all  navies. 
The  boats  are  submerged  by  admitting  water  to  the  ballast  tanks  or  by  using 
inclined  rudders.  Both  methods  are  employed  in  some  of  the  boats.  This  class  of 
vessels  has  not  yet  reached  the  high  mark  desired  in  point  of  safety,  speed  and 
habitability. 

Navigating  the  Air. — In  1766  Henry  Cavendish  of  England  discovered  the 
remarkable  lightness  of  hydrogen  gas.  It  was  found  to  be  so  much  lighter  than 
air  that  bags  filled  with  it  would  rise  far  above  the  earth  and  float  in  the  atmos- 
8 


34  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD. 

phere.  This  was  the  germ  of  the  balloon.  Balloons  have  been  of  little  practical 
importance  except  for  military  reconuoissance  (captive  balloons),  and  in  the  case 
of  besieged  cities  which  have  sometimes  used  balloons  to  communicate  with  the 
outer  world.  A  balloon  simply  drifts  with  the  air  currents,  and  it  is  not  natural 
for  man  to  be  long  content  with  devices  that  he  cannot  control;  so  for  years  many 
able  men  have  been  trying  to  perfect  air-ships  which  they  may  steer  in  any  direc- 
tion and  even  propel  against  the  wind. 

Great  progress  has  been  made  in  these  studies,  and  it  is  to-day  the  belief  of 
the  most  conservative  physicists  that  aerial  navigation  will  be  practically  accom- 
plished. The  investigators  are  divided  into  two  classes.  One  seeks  to  devise 
means  for  navigating  the  air  as  birds  do,  which  gain  support  and  propulsion  solely 
from  mechanical  and  muscular  energy;  the  other  relies  for  support  more  or  less 
upon  the  buoyancy  of  hydrogen  gas,  while  securing  propulsion  by  means  of  pro- 
pellers. All  are  interested  in  motors,  whether  the  air-ship  moves  with  or  without 
the  support  of  hydrogen.  All  are  concerned  with  methods  of  management  and 
with  the  adoption  of  means  for  directing  the  movements  of  an  air-ship  through 
the  air. 

Air-ships  are  now  steered  in  any  direction  and  propelled  against  the  wind; 
but  there  are  still  problems  to  be  solved  to  make  air  navigation  useful,  safe  and 
not  too  costly.  These  problems  are  now  receiving  the  closest  attention,  and 
when  they  are  solved,  the  air  will  become  a  great  navigable  highway  opened  for 
the  nations. 

Pneumatic  Tubes. — Propelled  by  air  pressure,  packages  of  mail,  parcels 
and  other  articles  are  now  transported  very  quickly  through  tubes.  The  first 
extensive  application  of  this  method  of  transportation  was  made  in  Berlin  in  1865 ; 
to-day  Berlin  has  over  thirty  miles  of  these  tubes  in  use,  and  the  speed  of  the 
"trains"  of  articles  that  are  shot  through  the  tubes  every  fifteen  minutes  is  from 
15  to  23  miles  an  hour.  All  the  leading  British  and  other  European  cities  use 
this  time-saving  appliance.  The  employment  of  the  pneumatic  tube  for  mail 
and  small  packages  in  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  many  other  American  cities  is 
constantly  increasing. 

The  Telegraph. — The  electric  telegraph  has  been  used  in  business  for  the 
quick  transmission  of  communications  only  since  1846,  about  twenty  years  after 
the  introduction  of  steam  railroads.  As  the  telegraph  is  far  less  costly  than  rail- 
road building,  it  has  spread  all  over  the  world  with  much  greater  rapidity.  It 
has  also  been  laid  along  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  from  continent  to  continent,  in 
the  form  of  cable,  and  thus  binds  all  parts  of  the  world  together.  Fourteen  ocean 
cables  now  connect  the  United  States  with  Europe.  Many  other  cables  cross 
the  Atlantic,  but  it  is  only  recently  that  cables  have  been  extended  across  the  Pa- 
cific between  America,  Asia  and  Australia.  One  of  the  two  Pacific  lines  extends 
from  Vancouver,  B.  C.,  by  way  of  Fanning,  Fiji  and  Norfolk  Islands  to  New 
Zealand  and  Australia.  The  United  States  line  crosses  the  Pacific  from  San 
Francisco  through  Honolulu,  Midway  Island,  Guam,  to  the  Philippine  Islands, 
touching  no  land  that  is  not  controlled  by  our  country. 

Much  attention  has  been  given  in  recent  years  to  wireless  telegraphy,  various 
systems  of  which  are  in  use.  They  are  of  much  value  in  communicating  between 


INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL   1II8TOKY    OF   THE  .WORLD.  35 

ships  at  sea  and  between  ships  and  the  shore.  Our  government  maintains  wire- 
less telegraph  stations  at  various  points  along  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  seaboards. 
The  ocean  cable  between  Seattle  and  Valdez,  Alaska,  is  joined  with  St.  Michael 
by  land  lines,  and  St.  Michael  and  the  great  Nome  mining  center  are  connected  by 
wireless  telegraphy  across  Norton  Sound,  107  miles.  Sometimes  5,000  words  are 
exchanged  in  an  afternoon  between  these  two  points.  Wireless  communications 
have  been  sent  clear  across  the  Atlantic,  but  such  long-distance  service  has  not  yet 
(1905)  been  made  entirely  practicable.  Wireless  telegraphing  promises  to  be 
one  of  the  very  important  developments  of  the  next  decade  for  cheap  and  rapid 
intercommunication  between  nations. 

The  Telephone. — In  recent  years  the  telephone  has  been  developed  to  a 
high  state  of  perfection.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  means  of  direct,  quick 
and  perfect  communication  between  individuals.  It  is  divided  into  two  kinds  of 
service;  long-distance  and  local.  The  long-distance  service  is  used  to  a  large 
extent  between  many  people  in  various  cities  for  the  transaction  of  important 
business,  conversations  being  held  between  cities  fully  1,500  miles  apart,  instantly 
transacting  business,  when  the  old  methods  of  letters  or  traveling  would  require 
either  much,  more  time  or  long  trips  and  large  comparative  expense.  Millions  of 
telephones  are  in  use  in  the  United  States  in  what  is  termed  local  service  in  cities 
and  towns,  and  are  connected  with  the  entire  surrounding  country.  They  have 
become  so  much  a  part  of  every-day  life  that  it  would  be  utterly  impossible  for 
the  ordinary  course  of  business  to  be  conducted  without  them,  and  to  be  deprived 
of  the  use  of  the  telephone  for  a  single  day  would  entirely  disorganize  the  routine 
of  business  and  social  relations  as  they  are  conducted  to-day.  The  telephone  has 
been  a  blessing  to  those  living  in  country  districts  several  miles  from  smaller  towns. 
Small  settlements  and  plantations  in  distant  islands,  widely  separated  mining 
districts  of  Alaska  and  other  isolated  countries,  stock  farm  and  ranches  in  the 
unsettled  parts  of  Africa  and  South  America  are  now  connected  by  telephone 
lines.  They  are  used  by  armies  in  the  field  to  keep  in  communication  and  advised 
of  different  movements.  They  are  also  used  to  report  observations  in  connection 
with  balloons  from  high  altitudes.  The  general  service  of  the  telephone  to  hu- 
manity places  it  as  one  of  the  most  convenient  and  useful  of  all  recent  scientific 
developments. 

MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Mathematical  geography  treats  of  the  form  ai.d  siz*.  of  the  earth,  its  dimen- 
sions and  the  methods  of  ascertaining  the  position  of  places  on  its  surface. 

The  next  few  pages  will  give  many  features  showing  the  helpfulness  of  our 
Flat  Globe  in  the  study  of  geography.  In  the  first  place,  a  few  definitions  and 
facts  of  Mathematical  Geography  will  simplify  the  study. 

The  Cardinal  Points. — If  we  hang  our  Globe  on  the  wall,  or  lay  it  before 
us,  with  the  North  Pole  upward,  the  right  hand  on  the  chart  will  of  course  rep- 
resent the  east  and  the  left  hand  the  west,  the  North  Pole  the  north,  and  the 
South  Pole  the  south.  These  are  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass. 

The  Antipodes. — A  straight  line  from  New  York  City  through  the  center 
•of  the  earth  to  the  other  side  of  the  Globe  would  emerge  in  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the 


36  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF    THE   WORLD. 

southwest  of  Australia.  The  point  of  emergence  would  be  the  Antipodes  of  New 
York.  The  line  would  form  a  true  diameter.  Thus  the  North  Pole  is  exactly 
antipodal  to  the  South  Pole.  Antipodes  Island,  to  the  southeast  of  New  Zealand, 
is  so  called  because  it  is  approximately  antipodal  to  Great  Britain.  Any  two  places 
having  this  relation  to  each  other  are  exactly  180  degrees  of  longitude  apart; 
and  one  of  them  is  just  as  many  degrees  of  latitude  to  the  north  of  the  equator 
as  the  other  is  to  the  south  of  it. 

The  Flat  Globe  shows  us  that  Philadelphia  is  in  40°  north  latitude.  Its 
antipodes,  therefore,  must  be  in  40°  south  latitude.  This  city  is  also  in  about 
75°  west  longitude,  and  as  it  is  separated  from  its  antipodes  by  180  degrees  of 
longitude,  we  find  that  the  antipodes  of  Philadelphia  is  approximately  in  105° 
east  longitude.  Find  its  position  from  this  explanation  on  the  Flat  Globe. 

The  Poles. — It  is  only  within  a  few  hundred  years  that  we  have  accepted  the 
fact  that  the  earth  is  spherical,  and  that  it  revolves  around  the  sun  and  rotates 
on  its  axis.  As  the  earth  is  spherical,  there  must  be  two  points  on  its  surface 
which  remain  at  rest  as  it  rotates.  We  call  these  points  the  North  Pole  and  the 
South  Pole.  The  imaginary  line  through  the  center  of  the  earth  uniting  them  is 
called  the  earth's  axis. 

The  Equator. — The  circle  that  surrounds  the  earth  at  equal  distance  from 
the  Poles  is  called  the  Equator  (equalizer),  because  it  divides  the  earth  into  equal 
hemispheres. 

Latitude  and  Longitude,, — It  was  necessary  to  devise  some  means  by 
which  we  might  find  any  position  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Mathematicians 
solved  the  problem  by  adopting  the  expedient  of  Parallels  and  Meridians. 

Imaginary  circles  surrounding  the  earth  parallel  to  the  equator  are  called  par- 
allels of  latitude.  The  latitude  of  a  point  is  its  distance  from  the  equator, 
north  or  south.  Thus,  Philadelphia  is  in  about  40°  north  latitude,  that  is  2,400 
geographical  miles  or  2,766  statute  miles  north  of  the  equator.  The  parallels 
for  every  10  degrees  of  latitude  are  printed  on  the  Flat  Globe. 

Meridians  are  imaginary  circles  that  pass  through  both  poles  and  intersect  the 
equator  and  all  parallels  at  right  angles.  "We  use  these  meridians  to  define  the  lon- 
gitude of  any  point — in  other  words,  to  determine  its  distance  to  the  east  or  the 
west  of  what  is  known  as  the  prime  meridian,  and  which,  of  course,  must  be 
previously  agreed  upon.  Ptolemy,  early  in  the  Christian  era,  selected  Ferro,  one 
of  the  islands  of  the  Canary  group,  as  the  prime  meridian,  because  it  was  the  most 
western  land  of  which  he  had  any  knowledge.  It  was  accepted  by  all  geogra- 
phers for  a  long  time,  but  other  meridians  came  into  use  later,  among  them  Green- 
wich, Paris,  Pulkova  and  Washington.  Most  nations  now  accept  Greenwich  as 
the  prime  meridian.  When  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  a  place  are  given,  its 
geographical  position  is  accurately  defined. 

Great  and  Small  Circles. — On  a  terrestrial  globe,  the  circles  of  latitude 
are  all  parallel  to  the  equator,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  they  are  called  parallels 
of  latitude.  The  equator  is  a  Great  Circle  of  the  earth.  The  parallels  to  the 
north  and  south  of  the  equator  are,  of  course,  smaller  circles,  and  grow  constantly 
smaller  as  their  distance  from  the  equator  increases.  They  are  called  Small  Cir- 
cles. All  the  meridians  pass  through  the  poles  and  are  all  equal  Great  Circles  of 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF  THE   WORLD. 


37 


the  sphere.  For  the  measurement  of  degrees  of  longitude,  however,  they  are 
treated  as  half  circles  extending  from  pole  to  pole.  On  the  Flat  Globe,  the 
earth  is  cut  on  20°  west  longitude  and  160°  east  longitude,  which  divides  the  earth 
into  the  eastern  and  western  hemispheres.  The  equator  is  the  dividing  line 
between  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres. 

Length  of  Degrees  of  Longitude. — All  our  globe  calculations  have  the 
meridian  of  Greenwich  as  the  prime  meridian.  Greenwich  is  a  parliamentary 
borough  of  the  City  of  London  in  Kent  County,  England,  on  the  Thames  River, 
five  miles  southeast  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London.  It  is  noted  for  the  Eoyal 
Observatory  (built  in  1675).  The  observatory  is  in  latitude  51°  28'  38"  north, 
and  is  the  point  of  departure  through  which  the  prime  meridian,  or  0,  passes 
from  which  longitudes  are  measured.  The  statute  mile  is  5,280  feet  long.  The 
geographical  or  nautical  mile  is  -fa  of  a  degree  of  latitude  at  the  equator,  and  is 
6,086  feet  long.  It  is  chiefly  used  by  navigators. 

The  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  at  the  equator  is  69. 164  miles,  while  at  the 
poles  it  is  nothing.  This  is  because  all  degrees  of  longitude  converge  at  the 
poles,  as  is  seen  on  the  Flat  Globe.  As  we  proceed  towards  the  poles  from  the 
equator,  the  length  of  the  degrees  of  longitude  constantly  lessens. 

The  following  table  illustrates  the  length  of  one  degree  of  longitude  in  differ- 
ent latitudes  from  the  equator  to  the  poles : 


LATITUDE   STAT.  MI. 

LATITUDE   STAT.  MI. 

LATITUDE   STAT.  MI. 

LATITUDE   STAT.  MI. 

0  degrees  69.164 

23  degrees  63.695 

46  degrees  48.124 

69  degrees  24.860 

1 

69.145 

24 

63.216 

47 

47.253 

70 

23.725 

2 

69.122 

25 

62.718 

48 

46.363 

71 

22.584 

3 

69.072 

26 

62.202 

49 

45.462 

72 

21.437 

4 

68.998 

27 

61.666 

50 

44.545 

73 

20.284 

5 

68.901 

28 

61.113 

51 

43.614 

74 

19.124 

6 

68.785 

29 

60.537 

52 

42.670 

75 

17.957 

7 

68.652 

30 

59.947 

53 

41.713 

76 

16.784 

8 

68.496 

31 

59.333 

54 

40.743 

77 

15.608 

9 

68.315 

32 

58.711 

55 

39.760 

78 

14.427 

10 

68.117 

33 

58.065 

56 

38.765 

79 

13.240 

11 

67.900 

34 

57.397 

57 

37.758 

80 

12.049 

12 

67.661 

35 

56.714 

58 

36.740 

81 

10.854 

13 

67.402 

36 

56.018 

59 

35.711 

82 

9.656 

14 

67.121 

37 

55.308 

60 

34.669 

83 

8.456 

15 

66.821 

38 

54.570 

61 

33.617 

84 

7.253 

16 

66.499 

39 

53.819 

62 

32.555 

85 

6.048 

17 

66.163 

40 

53.053 

63 

31.483 

86 

4.840 

18 

65.798 

41 

52.269 

64 

30.402 

87 

3.631 

19 

65.419 

42 

51.476 

65 

29.310 

88 

2.421 

20 

65.014 

43 

50.660 

66 

28.210 

89 

1.211 

21 

64.589 

44 

49.830 

67 

27.101 

90 

O.OW 

22 

64.156 

45 

48.982 

68 

25.985 

In  computing  distance  from  one  point  to  another  on  the  earth's  surface,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  make  some  allowances  where  the  points  lie  north  and  south  of  each 
other,  but  on  direct  parallels  east  or  west  the  scale  in  the  table  above  gives  the 
number  of  miles  at  each  parallel. 

Change  of  Date  Line. — The  change  of  date  line  marks  the  change  of  day  in 


38  1MKKNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

circumnavigating  the  earth  east  or  west.  By  common  consent  of  the  leading  na- 
tions, it  is  placed  in  the  Pacific,  and  for  the  most  part  coincides  with  the  180th 
meridian.  When  ships  "  cross  the  line,"  th$y  add  a  day  to  their  calendar  if  they 
are  going  west,  and  subtract  a  day  if  they  are  going  east;  and  the  date  line  is 
placed  in  the  Pacific,  far  from  most  lands,  because  it  is  best  to  have  the  change  made 
where  it  will  be  least  inconvenient.  Because  we  have  the  western  date,  the  date 
line  diverges  from  the  180th  meridian  in  the  Aleutian  Archipelago,  so  as  to  give 
all  our  Aleutian  islands  the  western  day.  Near  New  Zealand,  it  makes  a  slight 
detour  to  the  east,  so  as  to  give  the  Chatham  Islands  the  Australian  or  Asiatic 
day.  On  July  4, 1902,  the  west  was  substituted  for  the  eastern  date  in  the  Samoan 
Archipelago,  for  the  political  as  well  as  all  the  business  interests  of  the  islands  have 
become  identified  with  the  United  States  and  Germany,  which  have  the  western 
date. 

SOME    FEATURES    OF    THE    FLAT    GLOBE 

• 

Highways  of  the  Seas. — You  will  notice  on  our  Globe  that  the  principal 
ocean  highways  are  given,  and  the  distance  in  miles  between  ports  is  shown.  Thus, 
from  San  Francisco  to  Honolulu  is  2,100  miles,  from  Honolulu  to  Manila,  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  is  5,067  miles;  by  following  these  lines  from  one  hemisphere  to 
the  other,  we  get  a  perfect  globe  effect,  as  you  will  notice  the  same  degree  of  lati- 
tude in  one  hemisphere  corresponds  to  the  same  degree  of  latitude  in  the  other, 
which  brings  all  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude  correctly  in  place. 

To  show  how  vessels  sail  around  the  world,  follow  the  line  from  New  York 
City  across  the  Atlantic,  pass  the  Azores  Islands  to  Gibraltar,  through  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  Suez  Canal,  Ked  Sea,  Gulf  of  Aden,  across  the  Arabian  Sea  to 
Ceylon,  then  through  the  Indian  Ocean  to  Australia,  on  to  Melbourne  and  New 
Zealand,  then  across  the  South  Pacific  Ocean  through  the  Strait  of  Magellan, 
South  America,  and  thence  northward  through  the  South  and  North  Atlantic 
Oceans  to  New  York  City. 

The  Zones  are  situated  within  fixed  circles  on  each  hemisphere,  and  they 
are  imaginary  belts,  or  girdles,  named  as  follows:  Torrid,  meaning  hot;  Frigid, 
meaning  cold  or  frozen ;  Temperate,  meaning  moderate.  There  are  five  in  all. 
The  Torrid  Zone  is  situated  between  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  which  is  a  dotted 
line  23%  degrees  south  of  the  Equator,  and  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  which  is  a 
dotted  line  23%  degrees  north  of  the  equator. 

The  Polar  Circles  are  illustrated  by  dotted  lines  23%  degrees  from  the 
Poles.  The  northern  is  called  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  the  southern  is  called  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle.  Each  circle  of  latitude  on  the  Globe  represents  360  degrees  of  longi- 
tude, varying  in  length. 

From  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  north  to  the  Arctic  Circle  is  the  North  Temperate 
Zone.  From  the  Arctic  Circle  to  the  North  Pole  is  the  North  Frigid  Zone. 

From  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  south  latitude,  to  the  Antarctic  Circle,  is  the 
South  Temperate  Zone,  and  from  the  Antarctic  Circle  south  to  the  South  Pole  is 
the  South  Frigid  Zone. 

Small  dotted  lines  illustrate  the  limits  of  ordinary  navigation  toward  the  Poles, 
and  the  limits  of  the  heavy  drift  ice,  also  the  coral  reefs  and  islands.  The  various 


INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL    IHSTokV    <>I     TIIK    WORLD.  39 

routes  of  hurricanes,  trade  winds,  and  sea  currents,  showing  their  course,  are 
distinctly  traced. 

The  youngest  student  of  geography  may  learn  quickly  to  use  this  Flat  Globe 
in  an  intelligent  manner. 

By  being  placed  together,  back  to  back,  the  hemispheres  make  two  pole  points, 
one  for  the  north  and  one  for  the  south;  they  are  joined  correctly  and  give  the 
globe  effect,  and  are  more  easily  understood  by  the  child  or  any  person  studying 
from  it  than  from  a  solid  ball  globe. 

Time. — Time  is  measured  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  The  dif- 
ference of  longitude  between  any  two  places  on  the  earth's  surface  is  simply  the 
difference  of  local  times  at  the  two  places  at  the  same  instant.  We  are  thus  able 
to  convert  differences  of  time  into  differences  of  longitude  or  vice  versa.  When 
it  is  noon  on  the  prime  meridian  at  Greenwich,  for  example,  it  is  earlier  for  places 
to  the  west  of  Greenwich  by  the  amount  of  one  hour  for  every  15  degrees  of  west 
longitude;  and,  similarly,  it  is  later  for  all  places  to  the  east  of  Greenwich. 

Thus  the  surface  of  the  earth  may  be  divided  into  spaces  by  meridians  fifteen 
degrees  apart,  beginning  with  Greenwich.  These  meridians  may  be  called  hour- 
circles.  The  first  three  of  them  west  of  Greenwich  are  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
the  fourth  (60  degrees)  passes  through  Labrador  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
the  fifth  (75  degrees)  is  near  Philadelphia,  the  sixth  (90  degrees)  is  near  St.  Louis, 
the  seventh  (105  degrees)  is  near  Denver,  and  the  eighth  (120  degrees)  is  the  west 
boundary  of  Nevada. 

From  these  meridians,  or  hour-circles,  "standard"  railroad  time  in  North 
America  is  now  taken,  each  company  adopting  the  time  of  the  hour-circle  nearest 
the  greater  portion  of  its  road.  The  names  applied  to  these  standards  are  Inter- 
national (on  the  60th  degree),  Eastern  (on  the  75th  degree),  Central  (on  the  90th 
degree),  Mountain  (on  the  105th  degree),  Pacific  (on  the  120th  degree). 

All  places  on  the  same  meridian  have  exactly  the  same  time.  On  the  meridian 
of  75°  west  near  Philadelphia,  for  example,  it  is  noon  at  the  same  instant  from  the 
north  to  the  south  pole. 

The  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude  and  their  subdivisions  are  thus  desig- 
nated: A  degree  (°);  a  minute,  or  the  sixtieth  part  of  a  degree  (');  a  second, 
or  the  sixtieth  part  of  a  minute  ( "  •). 

TABLES  SHOWING  RELATIONSHIP  OF  LONGITUDE  TO  TIME. 

360°  of  longitude  make  a  difference  of  24  hours  in  lime. 
15°  "  "  "  1  hour  in  time. 

1°  "         makes  "  4  minutes  in  time. 

1'  "  "  "  4  seconds  in  time. 

1"  "  "  "  1-15  second  in  time. 

60"  =  1'  60  seconds  =  1  minute. 

60'   =  1°  60  minutes  =  1  hour. 

30°  -IS.  24  hours  =  1  day. 

360°  =  1  Cir.  365  d.,  5  h.,  48  m.,  49  s.  =1  solar  year. 

Time  Around  the  World. — You  will  notice  at  the  Equator  on  the  Flat 
Globe  there  are  shown  twenty -four  clock  faces,  one  for  every  hour  of  the  day. 


40  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD. 

When  it  is  twelve  o'clock,  noon,  at  Greenwich,  or  degree  "0,"  at  fifteen  degrees 
east  of  that  point  it  is  one  o'clock  P.M.,  and  at  fifteen  degrees  west,  it  is  eleven 
o'clock  A.M.,  and  for  every  additional  fifteen  degrees  of  distance,  east  or  west  of 
Greenwich,  to  the  180th  parallel,  or  date  line,  where  it  is  midnight,  there  is  a 
difference  of  one  hour  in  time.  East  of  Greenwich  it  is  P.M.,  west  of  Greenwich 
it  is  A.M.  For  example:  to  find  the  time  of  day  at  any  point,  say,  from  St. 
Louis,  Missouri.  If  it  is  twelve  o'clock,  noon,  at  St.  Louis,  bear  in  mind  that  it 
is  later  to  the  right  hand,  or  east,  and  earlier  to  the  left  hand,  or  west.  You  can 
readily  reckon  the  time  from  any  point,  by  obtaining  the  parallel  of  longitude, 
and  following  your  dials  therefrom,  alloAving  one  hour  for  each  fifteen  degrees. 

Divisions  of  Time. — The  apparent  movement  of  the  sun  and  the  movement 
of  the  moon  have  been  taken  in  all  ages  and  in  all  countries  as  the  measure  of  time. 
The  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  constitutes  the  measure  of  our  day,  the  earth's 
revolution  on  her  orbit  the  measure  of  our  year,  and  the  periodic  return  of  the 
moon  is  the  basis  of  our  month. 

The  true  solar  year  contains  365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes  and  49  seconds, 
but  as  the  common  or  civil  year  consists  of  only  365  days,  the  Solar  year  is 
about  a  quarter  of  a  day  longer  than  the  civil  year,  and  therefore,  as  this 
year  always  contains  365  days,  there  would  be  an  error  of  a  day  in  the  course  of 
every  four  years.  In  order  to  correct  that  error,  Julius  Cassar  enacted  that  every 
fourth  year  should  consist  of  366  days,  this  being  called  leap  year,  and  the  addi- 
tional day  to  be  added  in  themcnth  of  February,  thereby  making  that  month 
contain  twenty-nine  days.  Hence  this  mode  of  reckoning  is  called  the  "Julian 
Calendar. ' ' 

If  the  solar  year  had  consisted  of  365  days,  6  hours,  exactly,  there  would  have 
been  no  need  of  making  further  correction;  but  it  is  over  eleven  minutes  too 
short,  and  in  consequence  the  Julian  Calendar  introduced  an  error  of  forty -four 
minutes  every  four  years,  or  about  a  whole  day  in  one  hundred  and  thirty  years, 
which  in  the  courseof  centuries  became  considerable,  and  so  it  happened  that  in  1577 
the  Yernal  Equinox  occurred  on  the  10th  of  March  instead  of  the  21st.  Pope 
Gregory,  in  the  year  1582,  corrected  the  calendar  in  the  following  manner:  The 
5th  of  October  should  be  called  the  15th  to  correct  the  error  which  had  occurred 
from  the  time  of  Caesar,  and  to  prevent  its  happening  again,  he  decreed  that 
every  fourth  year  should  be  leap  year,  as  in  the  Julian  Calendar,  except  that  every 
hundredth  year  for  three  consecutive  centuries  should  be  common  years,  and  the 
fourth  hundredth  should  be  leap  year.  Thus  1700,  1800,  and  1900  are  common 
years,  and  2000  is  a  leap  year.  By  this  mode  of  reckoning,  the  error  in  four  hun- 
dred years  would  not  exceed  one  day.  This  calendar,  the  Gregorian,  was  not 
adopted  in  Great  Britain  till  1752.  It  is  called  the  New  Style,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  Julian  Calendar,  which  is  called  the  Old  Style. 

Equation  of  Time. — Owing  to  certain  causes,  among  them  the  irregu- 
larity of  the  sun's  apparent  motion  among  the  stars,  we  find  that  the  interval  be- 
tween two  successive  noons  is  not  always  the  same,  and  a  clock  that  keeps  t'rue 
time  will  not,  therefore,  always  correspond  with  the  sun ;  for  example,  if  it  be 
twelve  o'clock  M.  by  a  clock  keeping  true  time,  when  the  sun  is  exactly  on  the 
meridian,  it  will  not  be  exactly  noon  by  the  clock  to-morrow  when  the  sun  reaches 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD. 


41 


the  same  meridian.  The  time  by  the  clock  will  be  either  a  little  before  or  behind 
that  of  the  sun,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  This  difference  between 
the  clock  and  the  sun  is  called  the  Equation  of  Time.  You  will  find  in  almost 
every  almanac,  for  each  month,  reference  for  this  difference  in  time  for  each  day 
in  the  year.  Thus  you  can  always  tell  how  much  before  or  after  solar  time  your 
watch  or  clock  is. 

Length  of  Days  at  Various  Latitudes. — The  following  table  illustrates 
the  length  of  the  longest  days  in  the  various  latitudes  from  the  Equator: 

Latitude  at  0  degrees,  the  longest  day  is  12  hours. 


30 
49 
58 
63 
65 
66 
67 
69 
90 


14 
16 

18 
20 
22 
24 

1  month. 

2  months. 
6 


To  Find  the  Latitudes  and  Longitudes  of  Places. — To  find  the  lat- 
itude of  any  place,  find  the  parallel  nearest  to  the  place,  and  follow  it  to  the  right 
or  left  margin  of  the  map,  and  approximate  distance  above  or  below  the  line,  as 
the  Flat  Globe  shows  a  line  at  every  ten  degrees;  remember  that  if  north  of  the 
equator,  it  is  in  north  latitude,  and  if  south  of  the  equator,  it  is  in  south  latitude. 

To  find  the  longitude  of  any  place,  start  from  the  equator  on  a  parallel  near- 
est to  that  point  and  approximate  the  degrees  in  longitude  from  the  figures  that 
show  at  a  distance  of  five  degrees  on  the  equator,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  places 
to  the  right  or  east  of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  to  the  180th  degree  or  date  line 
are  in  east  longitude,  and  those  to  the  left  of  Greenwich  to  the  180th  degree  or 
date  line  are  in  west  longitude. 

Here  are  a  number  of  examples  of  the  kind  of  questions  that  may  be  answered 
by  reference  to  the  Flat  Globe : 

Example — Some  shipwrecked  sailors  who  are  out  of  sight  of  land  find  by  the  sun  that  they  are  in 
40  degrees  north  latitude  and  30  degrees  west  longitude.  What  is  their  place  on  the  globe,  what 
land  is  nearest  them,  and  in  what  direction  must  they  sail  to  reach  it? 

Answer — The  Island  of  Flores,  almost  due  south. 

Example — Another  company  are  in  30  degrees  south  latitude  and  110  degrees  west  longitude. 
What  land  is  nearest  them,  and  in  what  direction  must  they  sail  to  reach  it  ? 

Answer — Easter  Island,  or  almost  due  north. 

Example — What  hour  is  it  at  London  when  it  is  noon  at  St.  Louis? 

Answer — London  being  90  degrees  east  of  St.  Louis,  makes  it  six  hours  later  there.  Hence  it  is 
9  P.M.  at  London. 

What  hour  is  it  at  Chicago  when  it  is  9  A.M.  at  New  York  ? 

Example — To  find  the  difference  in  longitude  between  any  two  places  whose  difference  in  time  is 
known  : 

Reckon  fifteen  degrees  of  longitude  for  every  hour  of  time  and  one  degree  for  every  four  minutes. 
If  the  time  is  later  the  longitude  is  east,  and  if  earlier  it  is  west.  It  is  in  this  way  that  sailors  find 
where  they  are  on  the  ocean. 

Example — Some  sailors  at  noon  on  the  21st  of  December  saw  the  sun  to  the  south  and  only  ten 
degrees  above  the  horizon.  In  what  latitude  were  they  ? 

Answer — 50°  30'  north  latitude. 


42 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD. 


Example — By  their  chronometer,  which  keeps  Greenwich  time,  it  is  three  o'clock  P.M.;  in  what 
longitude  are  they  and  where  are  they  on  the  globe  ? 

Answer — Longitude  45°  west  and  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  3°  3',  or  343  miles  south  of  Cape  Farewell 
in  Greenland. 

Example — To  find  the  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  at  any  given  latitude  : 

Measiuv  the  distaia-i-  bet  worn  uny  two  meridians  at  the  given  latitude  with  a  rule  and  ascertain 
the  number  of  degrees  to  the  inch  this  occupies  at  the  equator.  Multiply  this  number  of  equatorial 
degrees  by  69  1-6  and  you  have  the  number  of  miles  between  the  two  meridians,  which,  divided  by  the 
number  of  degrees  between  them,  will  give  you  the  number  of  miles  in  one  degree. 

Kxample — To  find  how  fast  per  hour  the  people  at  any  given  place  are  carried  from  west  to  east 
by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  : 

Find  the  number  of  miles  in  fifteen  degrees  of  longitude  at  the  latitude  of  the  given  place  and 
multiply  this  by  60  1-6,  which  will  give  the  distance  the  place  moves  per  hour. 

Kxample — How  far  does  a  point  on  the  earth  move  from  west  to  east  in  one  hour  at  latitude 
30  north  ? 

Answer — The  distance  between  two  meridians  (fifteen  degrees)  at  latitude  30  degrees  is  equal  to 
thirteen  degrees  on  the  equator,  which,  multiplied  by  69  1-6  miles  in  each  degree,  gives  899  miles  as 
the  distance  traveled  in  one  hour. 

Example — To  find  the  antipodes  of  any  place : 

Ascertain  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  given  place,  and  on  the  meridian  exactly  opposite 
from  it  locate  a  place  the  same  distance  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  equator,  which  will  be  the  antip- 
odes of  the  given  place. 

Approximate  Ocean  Distances. — A  knot  or  nautical  mile  is  6,086  feet; 
a  statute  or  English  land  mile  is  5,280  feet;  a  knot  is  therefore  equal  to  about  one 
and  fifteen  one-hundredths  statute  miles. 


New  York 

(Sandy  Hook) 

to 


Knots. 


Alexandria 4,988 

Algiers 3,564 

Amsterdam 3,385 

Antwerp 3,208 

Azores 2,250 

Bermuda 691 

Bremen 3,484 

Cherbourg 3,027 

Christiania 3,425 

Copenhagen 3,800 

Dover 3,160 

Fastnet 2,800 

Genoa 4,060 

Gibraltar 3,200 

Glasgow 2,950 


New  York 

(Sandy  Hook) 

to 


Knots. 


Hamburg 3,510 

Havre 3,094 

Liverpool 3,032 

Lizard  2,934 

London 3,222 

Marseilles 3,900 

Milford  Haven 2,875 

Naples 4,140 

Newfoundland,  Banks  of 960 

Plymouth 2,946 

Prawle  Point 2,959 

Queenstown,  Roche  Point 2,772 

Rotterdam 3,290 

Scilly,  Bishop  Rock 2,886 

Southampton 3,100 


Knots. 

New  York  to  Sandy  Hook 18 

Sandy  Hook  to  Sandy  Hook  Lightship 8 

Sandy  Hook  Lightship  to  Fire  Island 30 

Fire  Island  to  Shinnecock. 35 

Shinnecock  to  Nantucket  Lightship 122 

Baltimore  to  Hamburg  (Cuxhaven) 3,813 

Baltimore  to  Southampton 3,405 

Baltimore  to  Queenstown  (Roche  Point) 3,118 

Philadelphia  to  Hamburg  (Cuxhaven) 3,633 

Philadelphia  to  Southampton 3,223 

Philadelphia  to  Queenstown  (Roche  Point) 2,950 

Boston  to  Hamburg  (Cuxhaven) 3,278 

Boston  to  Southampton 2,868 

Boston  to  Queenstown  (Roche  Point) 2,581 

On  a  clear  day  two  steamers  approaching  each  other  on  parallel  lines  at  20 
knots  speed  will  pass  at  the  end  of  fifteen  minutes  after  their  hulls  first  become 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 


43 


visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  at  the  end  of  another  fifteen  minutes  will  have 
passed  out  of  sight  astern. 

Depth  of  the  Oceans. — The  average  depth  of  the  oceans  is  from  12,000  to 
18,000  feet,  the  greatest  known  depth  being  about  46,000  feet.  The  extent  and 
depth  of  the  several  oceans  are  approximately  as  follows: 


AREA   SQUARE  MILES. 

AVERAGE   DEPTH. 

Pacific  

68  million  

12  780  feet 

Atlantic  

35  million  

12  060  feet 

Indian  

25  million  

10  980  feet 

6  000  feet 

Arctic  

5  million  

5  100  feet 

UNITED  STATES   "PORTS  OP  ENTRY." 

Albany,  N.  Y., 

Evansville,  Ind.,                 New  Orleans,  La., 

San  Francisco,  Cal., 

Atlanta,  Ga., 

Galveston,  Tex.,                  Newport  News,  Va., 

Savannah,  Ga., 

Baltimore,  Md., 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,        New  York,  N.  Y., 

St.  Joseph,  Mo., 

Bath,  Me., 

Hartford,  Conn.,                 Norfolk,  Va., 

St.  Louis,  Mo., 

Boston,  Mass., 

Indianapolis,  Ind.,              Oakland,  Cal., 

St.  Paul,  Minn., 

Bridgeport,  Conn., 

Jacksonville,  Fla.,              Omaha,  Neb., 

SaultSte.  Marie,  Mich., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y., 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,               Philadelphia,  Pa., 

San  Antonio,  Tex., 

Burlington,  Vt., 

Key  West,  Fla.,                  Pittsburg,  Pa,, 

Seattle,  Wash., 

Charleston,  S.  C., 

Lincoln,  Neb.,                     Port  Huron,  Mich., 

Sioux  City,  la., 

Chicago,  111., 

Louisville,  Ky.,                   Portland,  Me., 

Springfield,  Mass., 

Cincinnati,  0., 

Memphis,  Tenn.,                Portland,  Ore., 

Tacoma,  Wash., 

Cleveland,  0., 

Middletown,  Conn.,            Pt.  Townsend,  Wash., 

Tampa,  Fla., 

Columbus,  0., 

Milwaukee,  Wis.,                Portsmouth,  N.  H., 

Toledo,  O., 

Denver,  Colo., 

Minneapolis,  Minn.,            Providence,  K.  I., 

Washington,  D.  C., 

Detroit,  Mich., 

Mobile,  Ala.,                       Richmond,  Va., 

Wilmington,  Del., 

Dubuque,  la., 

Nashville,  Tenn.,                Rochester,  N.  Y., 

Wilmington,  N.  C. 

Duluth,  Minn., 

Newark,  N.  J.,                    San  Diego,  Cal., 

Bnfield,  Conn., 

New  Haven,  Conn.,             Sandusky,  0., 

DISTANCES  AND  MAIL  TIME   FROM  NEW   YORK  CITY. 


BY  POSTAL   ROUTE   TO  — 

MILES. 

DAYS. 

Adelaide  via  San  Francisco  

12,845 

34 

Alexandria,  via  London  

6  150 

14 

Amsterdam,  "        "        

3985 

9 

Antwerp,        "        "        

3  208 

9 

Athens,           "        "        

5,655 

14 

Bangkok  ,  Siam,  via  San  Francisco  

12  990 

43 

Batavia,  Java,  via  London  

12  800 

35 

Berlin,    via  London  

4385 

9 

Bombay,  "        "       

9  765 

26 

Bremen    "        "       

4235 

9 

Calcutta,  via  London  

11  120 

29 

Cape  Town,  via  London  

11  245 

27 

Constantinople,  via  London  

5  810 

13 

Florence,  via  London  '.  

4,800 

10 

Glasgow  

3375 

9 

Hamburg,  via  London  

4,340 

9 

Hong  Kong,  via  San  Francisco  

10590 

30 

Honolulu       "      "           "         

5,645 

13 

Liverpool  

3540 

8 

London  

3  740 

8 

Madrid,  via  London  

4,925 

10 

Melbourne,  via  San  Francisco  

12,265 

32 

Paris  

4,020 

8 

Rome,  via  London  

5,030 

10 

Rotterdam,  via  London  

3,935 

9 

St.  Petersburg,  via  London  

5,370 

11 

Shanghai,  via  San  Francisco  

9,920 

31 

Stockholm,  via  London  

4,975 

10 

Sydney,  via  San  Francisco  

11,570 

31 

Vienna,  via  London  

4,740 

9 

Yokohama,  via  San  Francisco  

7,348 

22 

44  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   ot1   THE    WORLD. 

NATIONAL  AND  POLITICAL  GEOGKAPHY 

Here  are  the  most  important  and  the  latest  facts  concerning  the  various 
countries  of  the  world : 

Abyssinia  (or  Ethiopia). — A  native  empire  (despotic)  in  East  Africa, 
between  4°  and  15°  north  latitude  and  35°  and  47°  east  longitude.  A  rugged 
plateau  mostly,  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  the  center  of  the  coun- 
try is  a  great  depression,  occupied  by  Lake  Tana,  with  an  area  of  1,200  miles, 
which  is  the  principal  source  of  the  Blue  Nile.  Population,  about  5,000,000; 
area,  about  217,000  square  miles,  exclusive  of  the  Somali  territories.  The  em- 
peror, Menelik  II.,  claims  his  descent  from  Menelik,  the  son  of  Solomon  by  the 
Queen  of  Sheba. 

The  chief  commercial  products  are  coffee,  wild  indigo,  cotton,  sugar-cane, 
and  dates.  The  country  has  many  valuable  forest  trees.  The  capital  is  Addis 
Abeba;  population,  about  50,000.  Other  towns — Harar,  35,000;  Ankober,  7,000; 
Axum,  5,000;  Gondar,  5,000. 

The  country  is  almost  exclusively  agricultural,  but  tillage  is  very  inadequate. 
The  higher  plateaus  are  adapted  for  European  cereals.  The  western  lowlands 
are  hot  and  unhealthful.  An  important  coffee-growing  country.  Industries 
are  very  little  developed.  Mules  and  donkeys  chiefly  used  for  transpor- 
tation. The  French  railroad  from  Jibuti  to  Harar  and  Addis  Abeba  is  consider- 
ably advanced  (190  miles).  Religion,  Christian  (Coptic).  Exports  (1902) — $1,- 
117,122,  coffee,  dates,  ivory,  gums,  skins;  imports,  $1,376,838,  cotton  goods, 
cutlery,  etc. 

Afghanistan. — A  despotic  emirate  in  south-central  Asia;  lies  between  Per- 
sia and  India.  Area,  250,000  square  miles;  population,  4,000,000.  Kabul,  the 
capital,  has  140,000  population;  Kandahar,  40,000;  Herat,  12,000;  Ghazni, 
5,000.  It  is  one  of  the  most  barren  countries  in  the  world.  Sand,  bare  rocks, 
sterile  hills,  and  vast  snow-capped  mountains  are  the  main  features. of  this  stern, 
inhospitable  country.  In  summer  it  is  hot  everywhere.  The  temperature  depends 
upon  the  elevation  and  not  upon  the  latitude.  Stony,  treeless  slopes,  parched 
soil,  and  whirling  sand  increase  the  heat  and  dryness  of  the  scorching  air. 
Winter  brings  frost,  snow  and  blustering  storms,  and  is  full  of  surprises.  One 
moment  a  traveler  may  be  in  the  sun's  glare  and  the  next  he  is  pierced  by  the 
icy  wind.  The  products  are  wheat,  barley,  rice,  millet  and  Indian  corn.  Assa- 
foetida  in  large  quantities  is  exported  from  this  country  to  India.  Fruits,  such 
as  figs,  pomegranates  and  almonds,  are  produced  in  large  quantities.  The  Bac- 
trian  camel,  sheep  and  goats  are  reared.  The  industries  are  excellent  felts  and 
carpets  of  wool  and  hair,  and  some  silk  is  produced.  Race,  Afghan — exclusive 
and  unfriendly  to  foreigners.  Religion,  Mohammedan.  There  is  small  exterior 
commerce,  but  some  machinery  has  been  imported  into  Kabul,  and  fire-arms  are 
manufactured  there.  Foreign  trade,  chiefly  with  India  in  1903-04 — exports,  $2,- 
291,579;  imports,  $2,872,206. 

Alaska. — Area,  590,884  square  miles;  population  (1900),  63,592;  between 
52°  and  72°  north  latitude  and  141°  and  170°  west  longitude.  This  vast  territory, 
including  the  Aleutian  Islands,  came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States  by 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD.  45 

purchase  from  Russia  in  1867,  at  a  cost  of  $7,200,000  in  gold.  Congress 
created  Alaska  a  civil  and  territorial  government  May  17,  1884.  At  the  time  of 
its  purchase  from  Russia  it  was  considered  a  great  folly  (Seward's  folly).  The 
territory  has  far  more  than  paid  for  itself  to  date,  and  is  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able of  countries  in  its  resources  in  seal  and  other  fur-bearing  animals,  minerals, 
fisheries,  and  timber.  It  has  vast  lumber  districts  in  its  southern  parts.  Its  coast 
line  is  over  18,000  miles,  or  more  than  that  of  all  the  United  States  proper.  There 
are  61  volcanoes,  10  of  which  are  active.  Alaska  is  one  of  the  greatest  glacier 
regions  on  the  globe.  There  are  numerous  hot  mineral  and  boiling  springs. 
Medicinal  springs  abound.  Its  great  river,  the  Yukon,  is  navigable  for  upwards 
of  1,000  miles. 

Since  1896  the  development  of  placer  mining,  which  supplies  most  of  Alaska's 
gold  output,  has  made  wonderful  progress.  The  yield  increased  from  $2, 500, 000 
in  1897'to  about  $10,000,000  in  1903,  more  than  half  of  it  coming  from  the  Seward 
peninsula  (Nome  and  other  centers).  The  placers  of  the  Tanana,  Copper  and 
Koyukuk  rivers  and  Porcupine  Creek  are  conspicuous  for  their  yield.  Cop- 
per has  been  discovered  in  the  Copper  River,  upper  Tanana,  and  other  districts. 
Coal  is  mined  along  the  Yukon.  Tin  has  been  found  near  Cape  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  petroleum  fields  have  been  investigated  along  the  coasts.  In  a  few  districts 
much  hay  and  a  good  variety  of  field  crops  may  be  raised.  Reindeer  for  draft 
and  meat  purposes  are  multiplying.  A  cable  from  Seattle  connects  the  most  im- 
portant coast  towns  with  the  United  States,  and  a  system  of  internal  telegraphs 
is  in  operation. 

Algeria. — The  most  important  colony  of  France,  situated  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  of  Africa.  Area,  184,474  square  miles.  Population,  4,800,000,  of 
whom  700,000  are  foreigners,  400,000  French.  Capital,  Algiers,  97,000;  Oran, 
74,510;  Constantine,  46,581.  Occupied  by  France  in  1830.  Climate  resembles 
that  of  southern  Italy.  The  coast  is  divided  into  several  long  strips  by  the  paral- 
lel chains  of  the  Great  and  Lesser  Atlas — viz.,  the  coast  plain  only  partially  arable; 
the  Tell,  the  chief  agricultural  and  stock-farming  region .;  and  the  Algerian  Sahara, 
with  fertile  oases.  The  chief  crops  are  grain,  wine,  oil,  tobacco,  dates  and  south- 
ern fruits.  Large  quantities  of  vegetables  are  raised  for  the  markets  of  France. 
Cork  and  esparto  grass  for  paper  making  are  exported.  Horses,  camels  and  sheep 
are  of  superior  quality.  The  country  is  extraordinarily  rich  in  phosphates,  and 
yields  iron,  copper,  lead  and  salt.  The  Arab  natives  make  carpets  and  their 
other  distinctive  wares.  The  French  have  few  manufactures.  Wagon  roads 
are  fine,  and  nearly  three  times  the  length  of  the  railroads,  which  have  made 
rapid  progress.  Races — Berber,  French,  Italians,  etc.  Religions — Mohammedan, 
Christian,  and  Jewish.  Foreign  trade  (1902)  almost  wholly  with  France — ex- 
ports, $59,800,000;  imports,  $63,720,000. 

Andorra. — A  republic  in  the  Pyrenees.  Area,  176  square  miles;  popula- 
tion, 5,231.  Situated  about  42°  north  latitude  and  2°  east  longitude.  Before 
the  French  revolution  this  valley,  high  among  the  mountains,  had  no  sovereign 
rights,  but  was  a  barony  of  the  Counts  of  Urgel  and  of  Aragon,  having  govern- 
mental relations  both  with  France  and  Spain.  In  1793  the  French  Republic  de- 
clined to  receive  the  customary  tribute,  in  1810  the  Spanish  Cortes  abolished  the 


46  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

feudal  regime,  and  thus  Andorra  became  an  independent  state.  The  inhabitants 
continue  to  govern  themselves  in  accordance  with  old  feudal  customs.  The  land 
belongs  to  a  few  families.  Cattle  breeding  and  a  little  iron  and  woolen  manufac- 
turing are  the  chief  industries.  The  village  of  Andorra  is  the  capital,  but  San 
Julia  de  Loria  is  a  more  important  place.  Race,  chiefly  Spanish.  No  trade  statis- 
tics. 

Arabia. — A  peninsula  and  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  between  13°  and  33° 
north  latitude  and  35°  and  60°  east  longitude.  Area,  1,123,000  miles;  popu- 
lation, 8,500,000.  Mecca,  the  capital;  population,  60,000.  It  is  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  seas,  is  an  extensive  desert  land,  interspersed  with  a  few  fertile 
spots  on  the  coasts,  and  oases  in  the  interior,  where  millet,  cotton,  coffee,  indigo, 
barley,  sugar,  dates,  tobacco  and  aromatic  plants  are  raised.  Some  of  the 
inhabitants  dwell  in  towns  and  till  the  soil.  Commonly,  they  are  Bedouins,  or 
wandering  tribes,  whose  wealth  consists  of  horses,  camels,  asses  and  mules,  for 
which  the  country  is  noted.  In  all  this  vast  country  there  is  scarcely  a  single 
stream  deserving  the  title  of  river.  Mecca,  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed,  derives 
its  support  entirely  from  the  thousands  of  pilgrims  that  travel  thither  from  every 
part  of  the  Mohammidan  world.  Many  also  visit  Medina,  his  burial-place.  It  is 
on  the  slopes  of  Yemen,  on  the  southwest  coast,  that  the  famous  Mocha  coffee 
is  raised;  but  owing  to  primitive  methods,  the  production  has  become  very  small. 
Only  in  the  mountainous  southwest  has  a  fixed  population  established  itself. 
Race,  Arabian,  divided  into  many  tribes.  Religion,  Mohammedan.  Foreign 
trade  small.  A  railroad  is  now  being  built  from  Damascus  to  Mecca. 

Argentine  Republic. — South  America,  between  22°  and  53°  south  latitude 
and  56°  and  72°  west  longitude.  Area,  1,094,496  square  miles;  population 
(1903),  5,191,000;  capital,  Buenos  Aires,  908,492;  Rosario,  112,461.'  This 
country  is  the  richest  and  most  prosperous  in  South  America.  Climate  chiefly 
temperate.  Twenty  years  ago  only  a  cattle-raising  country,  Argentine  is  be- 
coming largely  agricultural.  Most  of  it  is  pampas  or  comparatively  flat  plains. 
The  eastern  part  of  the  pampas  and  the  region  between  the  Parana  and  Uruguay 
rivers  are  most  important  for  farming.  "Wheat  production  in  1902  was  1,700,000 
tons.  Much  wheat  is  exported.  Maize  and  linseed  are  very  large  crops.  Animal 
raising  is  very  extensive,  chiefly  cattle  and  sheep.  Th.  large  resources  in  min- 
erals near  the  western  mountains  are  still  almost  undeveloped.  Manufacturing  is 
small,  but  growing.  The  Parana,  Paraguay  and  Uruguay  rivers  are  splendid 
highways  of  trade.  Railroads  crossing  the  grain  regions  are  pushing  towards  the 
Andes,  and  the  transcontinental  railroad  has  reached  the  Chilean  frontier.  Races — 
Spanish-American,  Italian,  German,  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic.  For- 
eign trade  in  1903 — exports,  $177,744,800,  chiefly  frozen  meats,  live  cattle,  wool, 
wheat,  linseed,  hides;  imports,  $125,834,400,  chiefly  textiles,  iron  machinery, 
etc. 

The  Commonwealth  of  Australia. — A  self-governing  colony  of  Great 
Britain.  The  smallest  of  the  continents  between  11°  and  44°  south  latitude  and 
112°  and  152°  east  longitude.  Its  states  are  New  South  Wales,  South  Australia, 
Queensland,  Western  Australia,  Victoria,  Tasmania.  Area,  2,972,906  square 
miles.  Population  (1901),  4,353,000.  Temporary  capital,  Melbourne.  Mel- 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD.  47 

bourne  and  Sydney  each  has  a  population  of  about  500,000.  Australia  resem- 
bles Africa  in  surface  features — a  high  plain  in  the  interior,  "with  mountains  in 
the  east  and  west,  and  very  few  lowlands.  The  Murray  is  the  only  large  river 
system,  and  this  is  only  navigable  a  part  of  the  year.  Climate,  dry,  except  on 
the  east  coast.  The  southeast  and  southwest  are  adapted  for  cereals,  of  which 
wheat  is  the  most  important.  Fruit,  including  the  vine*,  is  successfully  cultivated. 
Frequent  droughts  impair  the  value  of  agriculture.  Australia  produces  about  half 
the  wool  the  world  consumes.  The  yield  of  gold  is  very  large,  and  coal  and  other 
minerals  are  extracted  in  large  quantities.  An  adequate  railroad  system  is  de- 
veloping. The  distance  of  Australia  from  other  civilized  lands  is  a  great  disad- 
vantage to  its  commerce.  Races,  British  and  aboriginal.  Three-fourths  of  the 
population  are  Protestant.  Foreign  trade  (1902) — exports,  $213,713,000 ;  imports, 
$203,644,000. 

Austria-Hungary. — A  limited  monarchy  in  central  Europe,  south  of  Ger- 
many and  Russia.  It  is  the  third  largest  kingdom  in  Europe.  Agricultural  in- 
dustry ranks  first,  producing  grains  of  all  kinds,  and  potatoes,  beet-root  sugar, 
wine  and  barley.  Population,  45,405,267;  area,  240,942  square  miles.  The  cap- 
ital is  Vienna ;  population  (1904),  1,816,303;  Budapest,  732,000.  The  empire  is 
mostly  surrounded  by  mountains  and  highlands,  and  sharp  contrasts  in  topography 
result  in  widely  different  climates.  The  southern  provinces  have  mild  winters 
and  dry  summers,  while  the  Hungarian  plains  have  very  hot  summers  and  severe 
winters.  Only  the  Alps  have  large  rainfall.  Agriculture,  on  the  whole,  is 
backward.  The  Hungarian  plains  are  among  the  great  wheat-producing 
regions  of  the  world.  Hungary  also  has  the  chief  tobacco-growing  district  in 
Europe.  The  Alpine  lands  are  most  favorable  for  animal  raising.  Mining 
is  best  developed  in  Bohemia,  especially  the  coal  deposits.  Coal  produc- 
tion is  not  equal  to  the  demand.  Manufactures  are  of  subordinate  importance, 
owing  to  slow  introduction  of  new  machinery,  high  freights  and  race  animosities. 
The  largest  industrial  development  is  in  the  northwest,  where  the  population  is 
most  dense.  The  railroad  system  is  well  developed,  and  there  are  over  100,000 
miles  of  carriage  roads  and  5,000  miles  of  navigable  waterways  (rivers  and 
canals).  No  country  has  suffered  more  from  race  hatred.  The  races  are  Ger- 
mans, Slavs,  Roumanians  and  Magyars.  The  Roman  Catholic  faith  numbers 
30,000,000  adherents;  there  are,  besides,  Protestants,  Greek  Catholics  and  Jews. 
Foreign  trade  (1903)— exports,  $466,026,262;  imports,  $423,069,012. 

Belgium. — A  kingdom  of  north  Europe,  between  France  and  Germany,  is 
the  most  densely  populated  country  in  the  world.  It  is  a  great  manufacturing 
country.  Every  foot  of  soil  is  cultivated  to  the  highest  degree.  Rich  in  coal, 
iron,  zinc,  lead  and  copper.  Large  producer  of  beet-root  sugar.  Area,  11,374 
square  miles;  population,  6,985,219.  Brussels  is  the  capital;  population,  190,- 
133;  Antwerp,  281,376;  Liege,  163,985;  Ghent,  162,490.  Farming,  though  very. 
intensive,  cannot  produce  enough  grain  for  home  consumption.  Coal  measures 
occupy  one-twenty-second  of  the  area,  but  are  so  deep  that  coal  mining  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  difficult.  Over  1,000,000  persons  are  engaged  in  manufac- 
turing, the  metal  and  machinery  industries  taking  the  first  rank,  while  textiles, 
glass,  porcelain  and  other  branches  are  very  important.  The  railroad  and  canal 


48  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD. 

systems  are  highly  developed,  but  sea  communications  are  hampered  by  the  small 
extent  of  coast  line.  More  than  one-half  of  the  people  are  Flemish,  42  per  cent. 
French,  and  the  rest  Walloons.  Nearly  all  are  Eoman  Catholics,  with  a  few- 
Protestants  and  Jews.  Foreign  trade  (1903) — exports,  $427,335,750;  imports, 
$537,921,000. 

Bolivia. — Is  an  inland  republic  of  South  America,  north  of  Argentina.  The 
agricultural  products  are  fruit,  corn  and  vegetables  common  to  both  temperate 
and  tropical  countries.  The  tropical  forests  are  rich  in  cabinet,  dye  and  building 
woods.  India-rubber  of  first-class  quality  is  found  in  enormous  quantities.  Gold 
and  silver  are  extensively  mined,  also  copper  and  tin.  Area,  515,156  square  miles; 
population  (1900),  1,853,400.  Sucre  is  the  capital ;  population,  20,907.  The  most 
important  town  is  La  Paz,  54,713.  In  this  country  is  partly  situated  Lake 
Titicaca,  on  whose  historic  shores  stand  the  ruins  of  structures  built  by  the 
once  mighty  race  of  Incas.  Races,  Spanish- Americans  and  Indians.  Religion, 
Roman  Catholic.  Bolivia  has  no  sea  frontage,  and  its  foreign  trade  is  chiefly 
through  the  Chilean  port  of  Antofagasta,  with  which  the  mining  region  is  con- 
nected by  rail.  Trade  in  1902 — exports,  nearly  all  metals  and  rubber,  $14,338,- 
480;  imports,  $6,222,920. 

Brazil. — Is  a  republic  of  South  America.  Area,  3,209,878  square  miles;  pop- 
ulation, 15,000,000.  Rio  Janeiro  is  the  capital;  population,  700,000.  Brazil  is 
the  largest  of  the  South  American  countries,  being  a  little  larger  than  the  United 
States  proper.  It  comprises  nearly  one-half  of  the  area  of  South  America.  This 
country  surpasses  all  others  in  the  extent  of  its  navigable  rivers.  It  also  has  im- 
mense forests  and  mines  of  great  value,  but  very  little  has  been  done  to  develop 
its  resources.  The  lowlands  of  the  Amazon  Basin  are  covered  by  dense  tropical 
forests  and  are  unhealthful.  The  highlands  inland,  south  of  the  Amazon  Basin, 
are  dry,  steppe-like  and  sparsely  populated.  The  region  of  the  plantations  is  in 
the  coastal  zone,  which  is  fairly  well  tilled,  and  contains  nearly  all  the  important 
cities.  The  climate  is  tropical  in  the  north,  subtropical  in  the  middle  latitudes 
and  temperate  in  the  south.  Brazil  is  the  largest  producer  of  coffee  and  rubber 
in  the  world,  and  there  is  now  an  over-production  of  coffee,  the  larger  part  of  which 
is  exported  from  Santos.  The  Amazon  Basin  abounds  with  rubber  trees.  Sugar 
cane  is  the  great  crop  of  the  regions  tributary  to  Pernambuco  and  Bahia.  Cattle 
thrive  chiefly  among  the  German  farmers  of  the  south.  Mining  is  little  devel- 
oped, and  manufactures,  confined  chiefly  to  the  meat,  sugar  and  beer-brewing  in- 
dustries, are  in  their  infancy.  Steamers  serve  the  Amazon  Basin  for  freight  car- 
riage, and  the  railroad  system  is  considerably  developed  in  the  southern  states. 
Races — Portuguese- American,  German,  Italian  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman 
Catholic.  Exports,  chiefly  coffee,  rubber,  tobacco,  hides  and  cacao;  imports, 
foodstuffs,  coal,  machinery  and  textiles.  Foreign  trade  (1902) — exports,  $177,- 
323,000;  imports,  $113,288,000. 

British  Honduras. — Is  in  northeast  Central  America,  adjoining  Mexico. 
A  British  crown  colony.  Area,  7,562  square  miles;  population,  31,471.  Be- 
lize, the  capital  and  chief  town;  population,  2,500.  The  country  consists  chiefly 
of  primeval  forests,  with  savannas  and  open  sandy  plains  covered  with  a  wiry 
grass  and  dotted  with  pine  trees.  The  soil  is  exceedingly  rich,  and  sugar-cane 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD  49 

is  the  chief  crop.  The  best  of  cocoa  trees  grow  wild  in  the  bush.  Its  staple 
products  are  natural  woods,  mahogany  and  logwood,  and  many  excellent  furniture 
woods.  There  are  some  thriving  sugar  estates,  and  large  coffee  plantations  have  been 
started.  Fruits  are  rapidly  and  extensively  grown.  Imports  (1903),  $1,775,568. 

Bulgaria. — Is  a  Balkan  principality  between  41°  and  44°  north  latitude 
and  22°  and  28°  east  longitude.  Nominally  tributary  to  Turkey,  but  practically 
independent.  Area,  37,282  square  miles.  Population  (1900),  3,744,283.  Solia, 
the  capital,  has  47,000  inhabitants;  Philippopolis,  43,043;  Yarna,  34,932;  Rust- 
chuk,  32,712.  Crossed  by  Balkan  ranges,  with  the  Danube  plain  in  the  north 
and  a  broad  rich  plain  (East  Rumelia)  in  the  south.  The  Bulgarians  are  indus- 
trious and  frugal  people,  72  per  cent,  of  whom  are  farmers.  Cattle  and  sheep- 
herding  are  important;  iron  and  coal  are  the  chief  minerals;  military  service  is 
obligatory;  less  than  29  per  cent,  of  the  population  can  read  or  write.  It  has  a 
large  trade  in  manufactured  articles,  and  507  miles  of  railroad  in  operation. 
Freed  from  the  Turkish  yoke  in  1878,  many  schools  have  been  established,  much 
progress  made  in  all  directions,  and  manufacturing  is  more  advanced  than  in 
most  Balkan  states,  especially  in  footwear,  leather  making,  woolen  textiles  and 
carpets.  Races — two-thirds  Bulgarians,  one-seventh  Turks,  Rumanians,  Greeks, 
etc.  Religion,  chiefly  Greek  Church.  Foreign  trade  (1903) — imports,  $16,- 
565,000;  exports,  $21,884,985. 

Canada,  Dominion  of. — A  British  colony,  with  the  executive  government 
vested  in  the  British  sovereign,  and  legislative  functions  in  a  parliament,  of  which 
the  House  of  Commons  is  elected  by  popular  vote.  Area,  3,745,574  square  miles; 
population,  5,371,315.  Capital,  Ottawa;  population,  59,928;  Montreal,  267,730; 
Toronto,  208,040;  Quebec,  68,840;  Hamilton,  52,634;  Halifax,  40,832.  It  extends 
from  42°  north  latitude  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  above  77°  north  latitude,  and  from 
52°  to  141°  west  longitude.  It  includes  nine  provinces,  British  Columbia,  Man- 
itoba, Nova  Scotia,  Ontario,  Quebec,  New  Brunswick,  Prince  Edward  Island, 
Saskatchewan,  and  Alberta  (the  last  two  organized  in  1905),  and  the  Northwest 
Territories  and  Yukon.  It  has  the  ocean  on  three  sides,  and  the  Great  Lakes 
on  the  south.  The  Atlantic  ports  are  nearer  to  European  markets  than  are 
those  of  the  United  States.  Canada  is  a  broad,  low  plain,  excepting  in  British 
Columbia,  which  is  the  mountain  region.  The  southern  part  of  the  eastern 
plain,  once  heavily  forested,  has  been  largely  cleared  for  farms.  The  south  cen- 
tral plain,  extendingin  to  Athabasca  from  the  southern  border,  is  a  comparatively 
level  prairie  with  deep  rich  soil,  one  of  the  finest  farm  and  grazing  regions  in  the 
world.  This  region  is  attracting  large  immigration.  About  70  per  cent,  of  the 
population  are  farmers,  with  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  maize  as  the  great  grain  crops. 
Fruit  raising  is  important  in  Ontario  and  Nova  Scotia.  "Wide  areas  of  forest  in 
northern  Quebec  and  Ontario  and  in  British  Columbia  yield  great  wealth  in  lum- 
ber, and  the  manufacture  of  wood  pulp  for  paper  making  is  very  large.  The 
mountain  plateau  is  the  source  of  most  of  the  metals,  though  iron  is  mined  on  th& 
east  coast.  Canada  is  usually  the  fourth  or  fifth  country  in  the  annual  world- 
product  of  gold,  is  one  of  the  two  largest  producers  of  nickel,  and  mines  much 
coal.  The  fisheries  employ  80,000  persons.  The  vast  regions  north  of  the  for- 
ests are  not  likely  to  be  of  great  value  unless  mineral  wealth  is  discovered.  The 
4 


50  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD. 

St.  Lawrence  and  Great  Lakes  afford  large  facilities  for  transportation.  Kailroads 
are  well  developed  in  the  southeast,  and  the  Canadian  Pacific  Eailroad  is  the  only 
transcontinental  line  in  America  owned  by  one  company.  A  second  transconti- 
nental line  from  Quebec  through  Winnipeg  to  Port  Simpson  is  to  be  built.  Races 
— British- American,  French,  and  Indian.  Religions,  Protestant  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic. Foreign  trade  (1903)— imports,  $224,814,000;  exports,  $196,161,000. 

Cape  Colony. — A  British  colony  in  South  Africa.  Area,  276,902  square 
miles;  population,  2,433,000.  It  extends  between  28°  and  35°  south  latitude 
and  16°  and  30°  east  longitude.  A  large  portion  of  the  country  is  but  a  wide 
area  of  semi-arid  regions,  which  have  nutritious  grasses  that  support  millions  of 
sheep  and  cattle  and  many  ostriches.  Stretching  across  the  southern  edge  of 
(Jape  Colony  is  a  zone  of  excellent  lands  producing  wheat,  maize  and  other  crops 
of  the  temperate  zone.  Thousands  of  acres  are  in  vines,  the  colony  being  a 
large  producer  of  wine,  and  also  of  north  and  south  European  fruits,  of  which 
large  quantities  are  sent  in  cool  storage  to  Europe  as  early  as  February  and  March. 
Four-fifths  of  Cape  Colony  needs  artificial  irrigation,  and  plants  for  this  purpose 
are  developing.  The  autumn  rains  provide  much  water.  Wool-growing  is  the 
largest  grazing  industry,  and  ostrich  feathers  from  the  domesticated  birds  are 
derived  chiefly  from  this  region.  Goats  are  more  numerous  than  cattle,  the  An- 
gora goat  yielding  large  quantities  of  mohair.  The  diamond  mines  at  Kimberley 
practically  monopolize  the  world's  trade.  Efforts  to  develop  industries  since  the 
Boer  war  are  noteworthy,  but  wine-making  is  still  the  most  important  branch. 
The  ports  of  Cape  Town,  East  London  and  Port  Elizabeth  are  connected  with 
the  far  interior  by  rail,  and  trains  are  now  running  from  Cape  Town  to  Yictoria 
Falls,  on  the  Zambesi  River,  1,640  miles.  Races — British,  Dutch,  and  the  natives, 
who  outnumber  the  whites  about  six  to  one.  Religion,  Protestant. 

Chinese  Empire. — Government  despotic.  Area,  4,278,591  square  miles; 
population  (1902),  426,447,305,  of  which  407,737,305  in  China  proper.  Peking  is 
the  capital;  population,  1,650,000.  China  extends  between  18°  and  54°  north 
latitude  and  74°  and  134°  east  longitude,  and  contains  over  one-fourth  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  earth.  Its  civilization,  arts  and  culture  are  the  oldest  in  the  world, 
and  for  centuries  have  been  practically  unchanged.  It  was  the  last  of  the  East- 
ern nations,  excepting  Corea,  to  open  its  ports  to  the  world.  The  present  out- 
look for  more  rapid  internal  improvements  is  encouraging.  A  few  railroads  are 
being  built,  and  Western  methods  of  manufacturing  cotton  and  some  machinery 
are  being  introduced.  Its  dense  population  makes  necessary  rigid  economy.  Its 
rivers  and  many  canals  are  of  great  importance  for  transportation  in  the  absence 
of  railroads.  Its  largest  cities  stand  on  their  banks,  while  many  thousands  of 
people  live  in  boats  which  float  on  their  surface.  Tibet  is  high,  cold  and  barren, 
excepting  in  some  of  the  lower  lands  in  the  south.  Manchuria  has  fine  and 
well -tilled  agricultural  lands  in  the  south,  raising  large  crops  of  wheat,  beans 
and  other  produce.  It  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  empire  outside  of  China 
proper.  Rice  forms  the  principal  food  in  China;  fish  comes  next.  Domestic 
animals,  excepting  hogs  and  poultry,  are  of  subordinate  importance.  Ninety 
per  cent,  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  agriculture.  Tillage  of  the  soil  is  most 
extensive.  Each  family  has  only  a  half  acre  to  two  acres,  and  the  hoe  takes  the 


INTKK.NATloNAL    <i  K<  "  •  KAl'II  ICAL    HI8TOKY    OF   THE    WORLD.  51 

place  of  the  plow.  The  north  of  China  resembles  our  Northern  States  and 
the  south  the  Gulf  States  in  vegetation  and  crops.  The  country  is  very  rich 
in  minerals,  especially  coal  and  iron,  but  mining  methods  are  primitive,  and  the 
output  is  small.  Religions — Confucianism,  Buddhism,  Taoism,  Mohammedan; 
1,094,000  Roman  Catholics,  35,000  Protestants.  Foreign  trade  (1902) — imports, 
$198,364,000:  exports,  $134,720,000. 

Chile. — A  South  American  republic.  Area,  299,626  square  miles;  popula- 
tion (1902),  3,173,783;  extends  between  17°  and  55°  south  latitude  and  68°  and 
75°  west  longitude.  Chileans  are  progressive  people,  encouraging  manufactures 
and  providing  good  educational  facilities.  Santiago  is  the  capital;  population, 
332,059;  Valparaiso,  leading  port  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America,  142,282; 
Concepcion,  49,351;  Iquique,  42,788.  The  country  lies  west  of  the  Andes 
Mountains,  extending  from  Peru  on  the  north  to  Cape  Horn,  a  distance  of  2,500 
miles.  The  elevation  of  its  eastern,  boundary,  the  Andes  range,  is  from  13,000  to 
14,000  feet  above  the  sea  level;  many  of  its  peaks  rise  higher.  The  greater  part 
of  the  coast  is  studded  with  islands,  some  of  which  are  very  fertile.  The  north  is 
sultry  and  rainless  (desert  of  Atacama) ;  the  center  has  regular  winter  rains,  and  the 
south  has  superabundant  rainfall  (120  inches)  and  a  cool  temperature.  Agriculture 
is  possible  in  the  north  only  by  irrigation  in  a  few  river  valleys;  in  central  Chile, 
between  Santiago  and  Valdivia,  our  cereals  thrive  finely.  Here  also  tobacco  and 
the  grape  are  cultivated  (50,000  men  in  the  wine  industry).  The  central  farm- 
ing region  sends  foodstuffs  to  north  Chile.  Forests  predominate  in  the  south, 
but  are  as  yet  little  utilized.  Stock  raising,  chiefly  sheep,  is  not  extensive.  Min- 
ing supplies  92  per  cent,  of  the  total  exports.  Over  1,000,000  tons  of  nitrate  of  soda 
are  sent  abroad  for  fertilizers  every  year.  Copper  is  the  largest  metal  export, 
followed  by  silver  and  gold.  Manufacturing  in  many  respects  is  still  in  its  early 
stages,  though  Chile  is  first  in  South  America  in  these  industries,  chiefly  flour 
mills,  foundries,  tanneries,  spinning  and  weaving  mills,  potteries  and  metal  goods. 
As  there  is  little  interior  navigation,  railroads  are  of  great  importance  and  fairly 
well  developed.  Steamers  ply  in  the  coast  trade.  Races — Spanish- American, 
German  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign  trade  (1902) — im- 
ports, $48,336,000;  exports,  $67,846,000. 

Colombia.— A  South  American  republic.  Area,  486,827  square  miles;  pop- 
ulation, 3,917,000;  extends  between  67°  and  79°  west  longitude  and  12°  north  and 
4°  south  latitude.  Low  plains  and  valleys  in  the  north  give  abundant  pasturage 
to  cattle.  South  of  Caribbean  coast-lands  the  Cordilleras  cover  about  one- third  of 
the  state,  and  high  plateaus  among  them  yield  wheat  and  other  temperate  crops. 
Rainfall  is  very  heavy  on  the  narrow  Pacific  slope,  which  is  covered  with  dense 
tropical  vegetation.  East  of  the  Cordilleras  is  a  wide  expanse  of  selvas  (forested 
plains),  rich  in  rubber,  also  llanos,  or  grass  plains,  where  cattle  graze.  Coffee 
of  good  quality  is  cultivated  at  middle  altitudes.  The  great  differences  in  alti- 
tude give  Colombia  all  the  climates  and  a  large  variety  of  the  vegetable  products 
of  the  world.  In  the  coastal  low  grounds  and  river  valleys  the  products  are  purely 
tropical;  between  3,000  and  6,500  feet,  maize  and  coffee  predominate;  between 
6,500  and  10,000  feet,  the  climate  is  delightful,  and  wheat,  vegetables  and 
Northern  Fruits  are  cultivated.  Columbia  is  the  source  of  the  world's  supply  of 


52  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD. 

emeralds,  but  the  mining  of  gold,  silver  and  coal  and  other  important  minerals 
is  little  developed.  The  population  live  chiefly  on  the  high  plateaus  and  at  the 
seaports.  Few  countries  are  so  poorly  provided  with  means  of  transportation. 
There  are  about  400  miles  of  railroad,  almost  no  wagon  roads,  and  only  poor  mule 
paths.  The  Magdalena  River  is  navigable  nearly  to  Honda,  600  miles,  the  Cauca 
to  Caceres,  and  the  Atrato  to  Quibdo;  but  the  most  populous  regions  among  the 
highlands  are  reached  only  by  mule  trains.  The  coast  towns  import  wheat  more 
cheaply  than  they  can  bring  it  from  their  own  highlands.  The  few  industries  are 
centered  around  Bogota,  the  capital;  population,  120,000;  Medellin,  53,000; 
Cartagena,  25,000 ;  Bucaramanga,  25,000.  Caribbean  seaports — Cartagena 
(declined),  Sabanilla  (port  of  Barranquilla) ;  Pacific,  Buena  Ventura.  Races, 
Spanish-American  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign  trade 
(1898)— imports,  $10,695,000;  exports,  $18,487,000. 

Congo  Free  State. — Under  the  sovereignty  of  King  Leopold  II.  of  Belgium, 
with  central  government  at  Brussels,  and  affairs  administered  by  a  Governor  Gen- 
eral in  the  state.  Area,  939,292  square  miles;  population,  estimated,  19,000,000; 
between  6°  north  and  14°  south  latitude  and  12°  and  32°  east  longitude.  Boma, 
50  miles  up  the  Congo,  is  the  capital. 

The  river  basin  is  the  second  largest  in  the  world,  and  most  of  it  is  included 
in  the  Congo  state.  The  state  is  chiefly  a  high,  flat  table-land,  bordered  on  the 
west  by  mountains,  through  which  the  river  has  cut  its  way  for  270  miles,  drop- 
ping to  the  coastal  plain  1,800  feet  in  that  distance.  There  is  navigation  up 
the  lower  Congo  for  90  miles  from  its  mouth;  the  rapids  through  the  mountains 
are  circumvented  by  a  railroad  to  Stanley  Pool,  above  which  about  8,000  miles 
of  navigation  are  spread  along  the  various  branches  of  the  upper  Congo  system. 
The  climate  is  torrid,  and,  excepting  at  some  places,  unhealthf ul  for  the  white  races ; 
but  the  heat  is  tempered  by  the  elevation  of  the  plateau,  and  as  the  whites  have 
learned  the  conditions  of  health,  the  mortality  among  them  has  been  reduced  more 
than  one-half.  Great  tropical  forests  are  found  only  in  the  east  and  northeast, 
the  most  of  the  state  being  rolling  grass-lands,  interspersed  with  areas  of  timber. 
The  government  has  a  large  number  of  stations,  and  many  posts  are  maintained 
by  missionary  and  trading  societies.  A  profusion  of  tropical  plants  and  animals 
provides  abundant  food  for  the  natives.  The  chief  commercial  products  as  yet 
are  rubber,  ivory  and  palm  oil,  but  some  cotton  and  tobacco  plantations  are  begin- 
ning to  flourish.  The  wealth  in  rubber  is  enormous.  It  is  a  misdemeanor  to  kill 
the  rubber  plant,  and  millions  of  them  are  being  set  out  in  plantations.  Euro- 
pean cattle,  introduced  at  70  stations,  are  doing  well,  though  they  are  not  suc- 
ceeding in  some  districts.  Gold,  copper,  silver  and  iron  are  the  principal  metals, 
and  Katanga,  the  southeast  district,  has  great  mineral  wealth.  On  the  upper 
Congo  and  its  tributaries  are  100  small  steamers  and  many  tow-boats,  which  ply 
to  the  heads  of  navigation.  Slave-raiding,  cannibalism,  human  sacrifices,  etc., 
are  severely  punished  and  suppressed  wherever  the  government  has  brought  the 
country  under  its  influence.  Many  thousands  of  the  younger  natives  are  being 
taught  trades,  and  all  manual  and  considerable  skilled  labor  is  performed  by  na- 
tives under  white  supervision.  Foreign  trade  (1902) — imports,  $5,280,000;  ex- 
ports, $9,640,000,  three-fourths  rubber. 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD.  53 

Corea. — An  absolute  monarchy  in  Asia.  Area,  82,000  square  miles;  pop- 
ulation (1901),  5,713,244;  government,  imperial,  strongly  under  Japanese  influ- 
ence. Between  34°  and  44°  north  latitude  and  125°  and  131°  east  longitude. 
Capital,  Seoul;  population,  193,640.  A  very  mountainous  peninsula,  about  600 
miles  long  and  135  miles  wide  at  its  broadest  part.  It  has  a  few  excellent  har- 
bors and  a  good  climate.  Most  of  the  people  are  farmers,  and  agriculture  thrives 
best  in  the  southern  half  of  the  peninsula,  rice  and  beans  being  the  chief  crops.. 
The  industry  is  greatly  hampered  bjr  lack  of  room,  as  the  valleys  are  narrow. 
Many  mountain-sides  are  terraced  and  cultivated.  Gold  has  been  found  in  many- 
places,  and  a  number  of  foreign  companies,  especially  Americans,  are  beginning 
to  work  concessions.  Inland  communications,  are  very  poor,  excepting  by  the 
short  railroad  connecting  Seoul  with  its  port  Chemulpo,  and  the  line  opened  in 
1904  between  the  southern.port  of  Fusan  and  the  capital.  Ponies,  wheelbarrows, 
and  sedan-chairs  are  used  for  most  of  the  freightage  and  passenger  traffic.  The 
important  ports,  Fusan,  Chemulpo,  Mokpo  and  'Wunsan,  are  open  to  foreign 
traders.  Besides  Coreans,  19,000  Japanese,  5,000  Chinese,  and  a  few  hundred 
Americans  and  Europeans  live  in  the  country.  Religions — Buddhism,  Confucian- 
ism, 58,800  Roman  Catholics  and  -28,000  Protestants.  Trade  (1903) — imports, 
$4,579,797;  exports,  $3,758,500. 

Costa  Rica. — A  Central  American  republic.  Area,  21,100  square  miles; 
population  (1903),  322,618.  Between  8°  and  12°  north  latitude  and  81°  and  86° 
west  longitude.  Two  parallel  mountain  ranges  cross  Costa  Rica,  with  the  depres- 
sion of  Cartago  between  them.  Several  active  volcanoes  are  in  the  northern 
range,  and  among  them  Turrialba  and  Irazu  are  over  11, 000  feet  in  height.  The 
southern  chain  also  has  lofty  mountains.  A  third  of  the  population  live  on  the 
Pacific  or  dry  side  of  the  mountains,  many  having  relations  with  the  coffee  plan- 
tations that  supply  Costa  Rica  with  more  than  half  of  her  exports.  Coffee  is  the 
largest  crop,  and  is  noted  for  its  excellence.  Cattle  are  herded  on  the  uplands, 
but  the  home  supply  of  beef  is  not  equal  to  the  demand.  San  Jose,  the  capital, 
on  the  table-land,  in  the  heart  of  the  coffee  district,  has  24,963  inhabitants,  and 
is  connected  by  rail  with  Puerto  Limon,  the  Atlantic  port.  Punta  Arenas  is  the 
Pacific  port.  Races,  Spanish -American  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic, 
The  imports  are  hardware  and  manufactures,  more  than  half  coming  from  the- 
United  States.  Foreign  trade  (1902)— imports,  $4,415,000;  exports,  $5,661,000. 

Cuba. — Area,  40,000  square  miles;  population  (1899),  1,572,797.  Between 
19°  and  23°  north  latitude  and  74°  and  85°  west  longitude.  Havana  is  the  capital ; 
population,  262,319.  Other  large  ports,  Cienfuegos,  30,038;  Santiago,  45,47S; 
Alatanzas,  45,282.  Cuba  is  the  largest  island  of  the  West  Indies,  and  the  largest 
fertile  island  of  America.  It  embraces  nearly  half  the  land  surface  of  the  West 
Indies.  Its  deeply  indented  coasts  provide  many  excellent  harbors,  which  is  one 
of  its  great  commercial  advantages.  In  the  west  are  the  low  mountains,  Sierra 
de  los  Organos,  on  whose  southern  slopes  (Yuelta  Abajo)  the  most  highly  prized 
tobacco  of  Cuba  is  raised.  In  the  east  are  higher  mountains,  where  agriculture  is 
much  diversified,  but  this  region  yields  less  for  export  than  other  parts  of  the 
island.  Between  the  eastern  and  western  mountains  are  the-  rich  central  plains 
that  produce  the  great  sugar  crop  of  Cuba  and  give  pasturage  to  large  numbers  of 


"'4  INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF    THE    WORLD. 

cattle.  The  climate  is  tropical,  tempered  by  the  northeast  trade  winds,  so  that 
the  white  race  can  live  in  any  part  of  the  island.  The  cities  in  which  sanitary  reg- 
ulations are  now  enforced  have  become  healthful.  Sugar  from  sugar-cane  and 
tobacco  are  the  two  great  crops.  About  two-thirds  of  the  tobacco  crop  is  ex- 
ported. Cocoanuts  and  bananas  are  exported  from  the  eastern  part  of  the  island. 
The  eastern  mountains  yield  prime  iron  ore  and  manganese.  Short  railroads 
cross  the  island  from  north  to  south,  and  the  line  from  Havana  to  Santiago  was 
completed  in  1903.  .  Wagon  roads  are  still  very  poor.  Steamers  in  the  coastal 
trade  make  the  circuit  of  the  island.  About  two-thirds  of  the  people  are 
Spanish -Americans,  142,000  foreign  whites,  234,000  negroes,  271,000  mixed 
blood,  and  14,000  Chinese.  Eeligion,  chiefly  Roman  Catholic.  Havana  is  the 
great  tobacco  and  Matanzas  the  sugar  port,  the  United  States  having  the  greater 
part  of  the  trade.  Foreign  trade  (1903) — imports,  $58,826,000;  exports,  $77,- 
849,000. 

Denmark. — A  limited  monarchy.  Area,  15,289  square  miles;  population, 
2,585,662.  Between  54°  and  58°  north  latitude  and  8°  and  13°  east  longitude. 
Capital,  Copenhagen;  population,  378,235.  Other  large  cities — Aarhuus,  51,814; 
Odense,  40,138^  Copenhagen  is  one  of  the  free  ports  of  Europe,  all  goods  admitted 
to  the  free  port  being  exempt  from  customs  duties.  Thus  they  may  be  reshipped 
to  foreign  ports  without  examination,  but  if  sent  into  Denmark  outside  of  the 
free  port,  they  must  pay  tariff  charges.  The  kingdom  is  entirely  lowland,  and 
the  west  coast  is  protected  from  the  sea  by  dikes  at  many  points.  The  Baltic 
islands,  excepting  Bornholm,  are  flat  and  fertile,  but  large  areas  of  moor  and  sand 
are  met  in  Jutland.  The  climate  is  oceanic,  mild  for  the  latitude,  but  great 
storms  sometimes  lash  the  coasts.  The  very  prosperous  Danes  have  agriculture 
and  cattle  breeding  as  their  chief  resources.  Two-thirds  of  the  land  is  fertile, 
the  pastures  are  large  and  rich,  and  stock  farming  is  the  special  sphere  of  the  Dan- 
ish farmer.  The  export  of  butter  and  eggs  is  enormous.  The  kingdom  is  poor 
in  minerals  and  entirely  wanting  in  metals.  As  four-fifths  of  the  inhabitants  are 
agriculturists,  manufacturing  has  only  a  minor  role,  and  industrial  establishments 
are  mainly  supported  by  the  farming  and  sea-faring  interests.  Beet  sugar  is 
refined,  flour  mills  are  numerous,  factories  make  sail-cloth,  leather,  and  prepare 
tobacco,  and  the  brewing  and  distilling  interests  are  large.  Copenhagen  and 
Odense,  where  manufacturing  is  mainly  confined,  produce  also  machinery,  porce- 
lain and  cloth.  On  the  whole,  Denmark  supplies  its  own  wants  but  poorly,  and 
most  manufactures  are  imported.  The  rail  and  wagon  roads  are  adequate  and 
excellent.  Race,  Danish.  Religion,  chiefly  Lutheran.  Trade  (1902) — imports, 
$116,700,000;  exports,  $85,700,000. 

Dutch  East  Indies. — Colonial  possessions  of  the  Netherlands.  Area,  584,- 
€00  square  miles;  population  (1903),  37,358,916.  Between  5°  north  latitude  and 
11°  south  latitude  and  95°  and  131°  east  longitude.  Batavia  is  the  capital ;  pop- 
ulation, 115,887.  Other  largest  towns  in  Java — Surabaja,  146,944;  Surakarta. 
109,459.  This  group  of  islands  comprises  Java,  Madura,  Sumatra,  most  of  Bor- 
neo, Banka,  Billiton,  Celebes,  Rian,  Lingga,  the  Molucca  Archipelago,  and  the 
small  Sunda  Islands.  Java  is  the  most  important,  and  produces  large  quantities 
of  sugar,  tea,  indigo,  cinchona  bark,  and  tobacco.  Sumatra  is  where  a  tobacco 


INTERNATIONA  I,    < .  K<  »  .  K  A  I'll  K  '\l.    HISTORY    OF    T1IK    \\om.|>. 

prized  for  cigar  wrappers  is  grown.  The  Dutch  are  very  skillful  in  their  colonial 
policy,  which  is  based  upon  the  maxim,  "The  Dutch  colonies  for  the  Dutch."" 
The  Dutch  protect  the  natives  from  arbitrary  oppression  and  spoliation,  and  have 
made  the  East  Indies  an  inexhaustible  source  of  wealth  for  the  mother  country. 
The  climate  is  tropical,  but  all  the  islands  are  mountainous,  ami  cool  retreatar;u-- 
accessible.  Java  (population,  28,745,698)  is"  the  most  densely  peopled  landn<«;ir 
the  equator.  Next  to  Cuba,  it  is  the  largest  producer  of  cane-sugar.  Java  coffee 
is  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  island  is  the  largest  producer  of  quinine, 
and  the  tea  plantations  yield  important  returns.  Sumatra's  products  are  like 
those  of  Java,  but  it  grows  a  far  larger  amount  of  tobacco.  A  large  part  of  the 
spices,  tortoise-shell  and  pearl-shell  in  the  world's  trade  comes  from  the  other 
Dutch  islands.  Batavia,  in  Java,  is  the  commercial  center  of  the  colony.  Four- 
fifths  of  all  products  are  sent  to  Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam,  where  they  are 
greatly  enhanced  in  value  by  manufacture  and  preparation  for .  market. 
Dutch  merchants  sell  these  products  in  many  lands,  and  send  to  the  East 
Indies  great  quantities  of  cottons  and  other  manufactures;  so  that  the 
Dutch  East  Indies  are  the  best  customers  of  the  Netherlands,  excepting 
Europe.  Race,  Malayan  stock.  Trade  (1902) — imports,  $82,778,000;  exports, 
$109,444,000. 

Ecuador. — A  South  American  republic.  Area,  118,630  square  miles;  pop- 
ulation, 1,400,000.  Between  2°  north  latitude  and  5°  south  latitude  and  74°  and  81°" 
west  longitude.  Capital,  Quito;  population,  80,000.  Other  cities,  Guayaquil, 
51,000;  Cuenca,  30,000;  Riobamba,  18,000.  Ecuador,  so  called  because  it  lies 
under  the  equator,  illustrates  the  influence  of  altitudes  on  climate  and  production. 
On  the  narrow  Pacific  coast  plain  there  are  tropical  forests,  high  grasses,  rubber, 
cacao  and  many  other  products  of  the  hot  lands.  The  people  live  in  thin- walled 
houses.  Only  70  miles  to  the  east  is  the  high  plateau  of  Ecuador,  between  the 
Cordilleran  ranges,  where  the  population  is  housed  in  stone  and  adobe  dwellings 
amid  fields  of  wheat,  barley,  potatoes  and  alfalfa.  Further  east  the  land  slopes 
to  another  forested  tropical  plain.  The  lowland  east  of  the  excellent  port  of 
Guayaquil  and  the  plain  of  the  Rio  Guayas  are  a  continuous  garden,  rich  in 
tropical  vegetation.  Here  sugar-cane  is  cultivated,  but  above  all  cacao,  which 
is  the  principal  wealth  of  the  country,  and  Ecuador  is  the  largest  source  of  supply. 
Cacao  is  over  three-fourths  of  the  total  exports.  They  need  wheat  on  the  coast, 
but  the  wheat-fields  of  the  high  plateau  have  been  inaccessible  because  only  mule 
paths  connected  the  high  with  the  low-lying  regions.  The  railroad  from  Guay- 
aquil has  now  been  pushed  to  the  plateau  of  Quito,  and  will  soon  reach  the  grain- 
growing  district,  so  that  the  people  of  the  low  plain  may  utilize  the  temperate 
products  of  their  own  country.  The  eastern  lowlands  have  rubber  and  gold  still 
almost  inaccessible.  The  coast  Indians  produce  the  famous  Panama  hats  from 
the  fine  straw  of  the  toquilla,  called  Panama  simply  because  they  are  forwarded  to 
market  through  that  port.  There  are  few  other  manufactures  except  the  prod- 
ucts of  a  small  number  of  woolen  and  cotton  mills,  saw  mills,  chocolate  works, 
and  soap  factories,  chiefly  at  Guayaquil,  which  has  the  best  harbor  on  the  west 
coast  of  South  America,  and  handles  nearly  all  the  foreign  trade.  The  imports 
are  mainly  manufactures  and  foodstuffs.  Races,  .Spanish- American  and  Indian. 


56  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD. 

Religion,  chiefly  Roman  Catholic.     Foreign  trade  (1903) — imports,  $5,534,907; 
exports,  $9,313,177. 

Egypt. — A  tributary  state  of  Turkey,  with  a  Khedive  as  sovereign,  but  in 
its  financial  and  economic  administration  under  the  control  of  Great  Britain. 
Befcveen  22°  and  32°  north  latitude  and  24°  and  38°  east  longitude.  Area,  383,- 
000  square  miles,  including  the  deserts.  The  area  of  the  cultivated  and  densely 
populated  land  is  only  10,000  square  miles,  a  narrow  strip  along  the  banks  of  the 
Nile  about  the  size  of  our  State  of  New  Hampshire.  Population,  9,821,000. 
Capital,  Cairo,  population,  565,187;  Alexandria,  the  chief  port,  315,047;  Port 
Said,  42,095.  Egypt  is  a  rocky  and  barren  upland,  with  no  marked  protuberances 
of  the  surface  except  the  mountains  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  a 
continuation  of  the  Sahara.  The  broad  channel  of  the  mighty  Nile  traverses 
this  desert,  and  where  it  overflows  its  banks  or  is  carried  by  irrigation  to  the 
land,  it  covers  the  desert  with  luxuriant  subtropical  flora.  It  is  thus  the  life  of 
Egypt.  The  greater  part  of  its  waters  .comes  through  the  Blue  Nile  from 
Abyssinia,  and  the  fertilizing  silt  is  also  chiefly  derived  from  the  eastern  tribu- 
taries bringing  rock  waste  from  the  Abyssinian  highlands.  Much  water  has  gone 
to  waste  because  at  flood  time  the  Nile  brings  a  larger  supply  than  can  be  util- 
ized, while  at  low  Nile  there  is  not  sufficient  water  for  the  crops.  This  difficulty 
lias  been  removed  by  the  great  dam  built  at  Assuan,  which  impounds  the  surplus 
waters  at  flood,  forming  a  great  lake  which  at  low  Nile  is  run  through  the  sluices 
and  carried  into  the  irrigation  ditches,  so  that  to-day  Egypt  is  raising  two  to  three 
crops  from  the  same  land  each  year  where  formerly  only  one  crop  was  possible. 
Besides  supplying  food  for  its  millions  of  inhabitants,  Egypt  is  sending  to  Ameri- 
can and  European  factories  almost  all  the  cotton  it  raises,  a  fiber  of  peculiar  excel- 
lence. Wheat,  maize  and  onions  are  also  large  export  crops.  The  live-stock 
industry  is  subordinate,  though  many  dromedaries,  cattle,  goats  and  poultry  are 
raised.  There  is  little  mining,  though  gold  is  now  being  taken  from  the  mountains 
east  of  the  Nile.  The  Suez  Canal  made  Egypt  the  connecting  link  between  Eu- 
rope and  eastern  Asia,  and  stimulated  its  trade.  Races — Egyptian,  38,200  Greeks, 
24,500  Italians,  19,600  British,  14,200  French,  and  a  few  Austrians  and  Ger- 
mans. Religions — chiefly  Mohammedan,  731,200  Christians,  25,200  Jews.  For- 
eign trade  (1902)— imports,  $73,229,000;  exports,  $87,081,000. 

France. — A  republic.  Area,  207,127  square  miles;  population  (1901), 
38,961,945.  Between  42°  and  51°  north  latitude  and  8°  east  and  4°  west  longi- 
tude. Paris  is  the  capital;  population,  2,714,068.  Other  largest  cities,  Mar- 
seilles, 491,168;  Lyons,  459,199;  Bordeaux,  256,638;  Lille,  210,696;  Toulouse, 
149,841;  Havre,  130,196.  With  the  sea  on  three  sides  (Atlantic  coasts,  962 
miles,  Mediterranean,  300  miles),  the  republic  is  very  favorably  situated  for 
.sea  traffic  with  the  Western  world  and  the  Orient.  The  greater  part  of 
France  is  lowland  or  occupied  by  mountains  of  only  moderate  height.  The 
eastern  half,  on  the  whole,  is  mountainous;  the  western  half  is  level,  a  great 
continuous  plain  stretching  from  the  north  through  the  whole  west  of 
France.  The  soil  is  nearly  everywhere  fertile.  France  has  over  150  rivers  nav- 
igable for  large  or  small  craft,  the  most  important  being  the  Seine,  Loire  (navi- 
gation somewhat  difficult),  the  Charente,  the  lower  Gironde,  the  Adour,  the 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD.  57 

Rhone  (of  little  value  for  navigation),  the  Meuse,  the  Somme  and  the  Moselle. 
Many  excellent  and  convenient  canals  connect  all  the  principal  rivers.  France 
has  the  most  delightful  climate  in  Europe,  giving  agriculture  a  fortunate  combina- 
tion of  central  and  south  European  conditions  of  farming.  More  than  half  the 
surface  is  under  cultivation,  and  nearly  half  the  people  live  on  farms,  most  of 
them  so  small  that  France  has  as  many  farm  holdings  as  there  are  in  the  United 
States.  There  are  few  good  harbors,  most  of  them  being  river  ports  or  artifi- 
cial harbors,  like  Cherbourg.  The  sea  trade  is  carried  on  chiefly  through  Mar- 
seilles, Havre,  Bordeaux,  and  Dunkirk.  France  is,  next  to  Russia,  the  largest 
wheat-growing  country  of  Europe,  oats  being  the  second  most  important  cereal. 
The  sugar  beet  and  tobacco  are  great  industrial  crops.  Wine  is  the  national 
beverage,  and  France  is  the  greatest  wine-growing  country  of  the  world.  All 
domestic  animals  are  raised  scientifically,  and  dairy  products  have  high  reputation. 
The  fisheries  are  very  important,  and  sardine  canning  is  one  of  the  large  indus- 
tries. France  has  much  coal,  but  not  enough  coal  and  iron  to  supply  the  home 
demand.  Manufacturing  is  very  highly  developed.  Over  1,000,000  persons  are 
employed  in  making  textiles;  French  silks,  cottons  and  woolens  are  unsurpassed. 
Many  classes  of  French  goods,  including  porcelains,  glassware  and  metal  prod- 
ucts, are  distinguished  for  good  taste,  elegance  and  finish,  while  other  nations 
surpass  France  in  the  cheap  commodities.  The  Paris  district  is  particularly  noted 
for  the  production  of  articles  de  luxe.  Race,  French  and  1,051,907  foreigners, 
including  over  12,000  Americans.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic,  about  600,000 
Protestants  and  50,000  Jews.  Foreign  trade  (1902)— imports,  $848,026,000; 
exports,  $820,671,000. 

French  Iiulo-Chiiia. — French  colonial  possession  in  south  Asia.  Area, 
243,240  square  miles;  population,  17,800,000.  Between  23°  and  9° north  latitude 
and  102°  and  110°  east  longitude.  These  dependencies  include  Cochin-China, 
Cambodia,  Annam,  Laos  and  Tonkin.  Cochin-China  is  the  oldest  and, 
commercially,  the  most  important,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  rich  alluvial  lands 
of  the  Mekong  delta,  covered  with  rice- fields.  The  far  interior  of  Tonkin  and 
Annam  is  mountainous,  but  Cochin-China  and  Cambodia  are  almost  entirely 
low  alluvial  lands,  while  the  low  delta  lands  of  Tonkin  extend  far  inland, 
and  the  coastal  belt  in  Annam  is  adapted  for  rice  culture.  Five-sixths  of  all 
the  cultivated  land  is  under  rice,  which  is  the  great  export  crop.  Tobacco  is 
raised  in  Annam  and  Cambodia,  tea  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Annam  and 
Tonkin,  and  there  is  a  small  cotton  industry  in  Tonkin.  Communications  on  the 
great  streams  are  not  of  .the  best  because  they  are  interrupted  by  rapids.  The 
Mekong  aifords  good  facilities  for  navigation  to  Sambor,  in  northern  Cambodia. 
Tonkin  has  large  coal  measures,  but  only  300,000  tons  are  mined  annually. 
Rice  exports  exceed  500,000  tons  a  year,  France  taking  most  of  the  crop.  The 
chief  towns  are  Hanoi  (capital),  103,238;  Hue,  50,000;  Pnom-Penh,  50,000; 
and  Saigon,  50,870.  Races — Annamese,  Chinese,  Laos  and  Malayan.  Roman 
Catholic  missions  claim  420,000  native  converts.  Foreign  trade  (1901)— imports, 
$40,450,000;  exports,  $32,150,000. 

Germany. — A  limited  monarchy.  Area,  210,273  square  miles;  population 
<1900),  56,367,178;  capital,  Berlin;  population,  1,888,326;  Hamburg  (1904), 


58  INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTOKY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

772,852;  Munich,  562,000,;  Bremen,  199,666;  Nuremberg,  261,081;  Breslau, 
422,709:  Cologne,  372,529;  Frankfort-on-Main,  288,989;  Hanover,  235,149; 
Dresden  (1904),  533,000;  Leipzig,  456,124;  Chemnitz,  214,030.  The  empire 
lies  between  47°-56°  north  latitude  and  5°-23°  east  longitude.  The  northern 
half  is  a  very  low  plain,  marshy  along  the  Baltic,  and  rising  gently  to  the 
highlands  of  the  southern  half;  back  of  the  highlands  are  the  Alps,  on  the 
southern  edge  of  Germany.  The  Baltic  and  North  Sea  coasts  are  1,200  miles 
in  length.  The  harbors  are  at  the  mouths  of  risers  or  some  distance  inland. 
Hamburg  is  the  third  largest  port  in  the  world,  and  handles  half  of  Ger- 
many's foreign  trade.  Bremen,  on  the  Weser,  is  the  second  port,  and  Stettin 
and  Danzig  are  the  chief  North  Sea  ports.  The  rivers  have  great  importance  in 
transportation;  immense  sums  have  been  spent  on  their  improvement,  and  many 
canals  connect  them.  The  Elbe  is  navigable  clear  across  Germany.  The  con- 
tinental climate  prevails  in  the  east  and  the  oceanic  climate  in  the  west,  so  that 
the  average  temperature  of  eastern  Germany  is  lower  than  that  of  western  Ger- 
many. About  one-fourth  of  the  country  is  covered  with  forests,  which  are  care- 
fully conserved,  and  a  tree  must  be  planted  for  every  one  cut  down.  The  growth 
of  manufactures  has  reduced  the  agricultural  population  so  that  less  than  half  the 
people  are  now  farmers.  Germany  has  a  great  variety  of  agricultural  products, 
but  can  not  raise  sufficient  food  for  her  dense  population.  Nearly  half  the  tilled 
lands  in  the  northeast  and  northwest  are  in  rye,  Germany  being,  next  to  Russia, 
the  largest  grower  of  that  crop.  The  empire  leads  the  world  in  the  production 
of  beet  sugar,  the  sugar  beet  covering  a  large  area.  Wine  culture  is  almost  wholly 
centered  along  the  southwestern  rivers,  chiefly  the  Rhine.  The  warm  and  fertile 
Rhine  plain  between  Basel  and  Bingen  is  one  of  the  greatest  tobacco  regions  of 
Europe.  Wheat,  only  half  as  large  a  crop  as  rye,  and  also  barley,  are  raised 
chiefly  in  the  southwestern  highlands.  Oats  are  a  very  large  crop.  Germany  raises 
more  potatoes  than  any  other  country,  chiefly  in  the  sandy  northern  plain.  The 
hops  and  beer  of  Bavaria  are  famous.  The  chief  dairy  industry  is  in  the  north, 
especially  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  where  cattle  are  easily  fattened  and  the  grasses 
conduce  to  the  richest  quality  of  milk.  North  Germany  is  also  most  propitious 
for  horse  raising.  The  goat  is  the  poor  man's  cow,  and  many  thousands  are  raised 
in  the  southern  highlands.  Sheep  have  greatly  decreased,  and  immense  quanti- 
ties of  wool  are  imported  for  the  factories. 

Germany  is  surpassed  only  by  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  as  an  indus- 
trial nation.  Coal  and  iron  are  close  at  hand  for  German  manufacturers.  The 
greatest  attention  is  given  to  perfecting  technical  processes.  The  most  important 
industries  are  iron  and  steel,  and  their  manufactures,  which  are  promoted  by  the 
great  coal-fields  of  the  Ruhr  River,  Saxony  and  the  Saar.  Textiles  are  the  second 
largest  industry,  many  towns  in  Rhineland -Westphalia  and  in  the  Chemnitz  dis- 
trict of  Saxony  being  spinning  and  weaving  centers.  The  nation's  success  in 
many  other  fields  of  manufacturing  is  very  great.  Transportation  is  abundant 
and  comparatively  cheap,  the  splendid  development  of  waterways  supplementing 
the  numerous  railroads.  The  imports  are  enormous  quantities  of  food  and  raw 
materials,  and  the  exports  are  manufactured  articles.  Race,  Germanic,  and  over 
500,000  foreigners,  chiefly  from  other  European  states.  Religion — over  25,000,- 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    <•!•'   TIIK    Wori.h.  59 

000  Lutherans,  over  20,000,000  Koman  Catholics,  210,000  otherChristians,  586,045 
Israelites.     Foreign  trade  (1903)—  imports,  $1,580,286,500;  exports,  $l,04i',.  "»•;:,- 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  —  Officially,  the  United  Kingdom.  A  lim- 
ited monarchy.  Area,  120,979  square  miles.  Between  4'.'  t'.<>°  north  latitude 
and  11°  west-2°  east  longitude.  Population  (1904),  42,940,000.  Capital,  Lon- 
don; population  (1902,  Greater  London),  6,705,731.  Other  cities,  Glasgow, 
760,423;  Liverpool,  716,810;  Manchester,  553,406;  Birmingham,  533,486;  Leeds, 
443,559;  Sheffield,  425,528;  Dublin,  373,179;  Belfast,  348,965;  Bristol,  338,895; 
Edinburgh,  316,479.  Great  Britain  consists  of  England,  Scotland  and  Wales. 

An  extensive,  undulating  and  fertile  plain  covers  the  south  and  east  of  Great 
Britain.  Mountains  rise  in  the  north  and  west,  covering  two-fifths  of  the  total 
surface.  The  mountains  of  north  Scotland  are  mostly  destitute  of  cultivation. 
Most  of  Ireland  is  an  undulating  interior  plain,  with  mountain  ranges  near  the 
sea  surrounding  it.  Most  of  the  plain  is  very  fertile,  but  one-seventh  of  Ireland 
is  covered  by  bog  and  moor.  England  has  fifty  rivers  navigable  by  large  or  small 
vessels,  chief  of  which  is  the  Thames,  commercially  the  most  important  river  in 
the  world,  although  only  220  miles  long.  Scottish  rivers  are  of  little  commercial 
importance,  but  Ireland  has  many  navigable  streams,  among  which  the  Shannon 
is  navigable  for  almost  its  entire  length.  In  England  'there  are  over  2,500  miles 
of  canals,  and  a  great  ship  canal  connects  Manchester  with  the  sea.  The  climate 
is  oceanic  and  mild  for  the  high  northern  latitude.  The  abundant  rainfall  is  most 
copious  in  the  west.  Severe  storms  in  autumn  and  winter  sometimes  do  great 
damage  on  the  coasts. 

Agriculture  is  not  so  important  as  manufacturing.  Only  18  per  cent,  of  the 
land  is  plowed.  Cereals  in  wide  areas  find  the  climate  too  cold  or  too  humid, 
but  conditions  are  extremely  favorable  for  natural  meadows,  and  nearly  half  the 
farming  lands  are  in  pastures  or  hay.  No  other  nation  has  finer  breeds  of  cattle, 
horses  and  sheep.  Still  the  country  needs  to  import  enormous  quantities  of  dairy 
products,  and  the  imports  of  wheat  and  flour  have  increased  70  per  cent,  in  a  cen- 
tury. Maize  does  not  ripen,  and  oats  is  the  most  important  cereal  crop. 

The  mineral  riches  are  very  great,  far  exceeding  in  value  the  agricultural  prod- 
ucts. The  coal-fields,  with  about  4,000  mines,  are  among  Great  Britain's  most 
valuable  possessions.  The  most  important  metal  is  iron,  the  mines  being  situ- 
ated near  or  among  the  coal-fields.  The  nation,  next  to  the  United  States,  is  the 
largest  producer  of  iron  and  steel.  More  salt  is  mined  than  in  any  other  country, 
and  the  tin  mines  produce  annually  about  15,000  tons  of  ore. 

The  textile  industries  are  first  in  the  list  of  manufactures,  the  greatest  centers 
of  the  cotton  industry  being  around  Manchester,  Derby,  Nottingham,  Glasgow, 
Paisley  and  Belfast.  About  500,000,000  pounds  of  wool  are  absorbed  annually 
by  the  woolen  industries.  Linen  manufacture  is  very  ancient  in  Ireland,  and  is 
one  of  its  leading  industries.  The  silk  industry  does  not  meet  French  competi- 
tion nor  supply  the  home  demand.  The  metal  industries  form  the  second  great 
department  of  manufactures.  Besides  steel  rails,  armor  plates  and  steel  for 
bridges,  railroads,  ships,  etc.,  machinery  is  made  in  over  2,000  machine  shops, 
producing  wares  of  every  kind  that  are  marketed  all  over  the  world.  *  Earthen- 


>60  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

ware  and  glass,  chemicals,  leather,  and,  in  fact,  all  branches  of  manufacturing  are 
of  the  highest  development. 

Great  Britain  is  the  leading  commercial  nation,  as  its  trade  is  world-wide  in 
the  fullest  sense.  The  railroads  are  solidly  constructed,  usually  with  double 
tracks,  and  the  speed  of  the  trains  is  the  highest  in  Europe.  The  country's 
activities  are  wonderfully  stimulated  by  enormous  capital,  which  works  not  only 
at  home  but  also  all  over  the  world.  About  half  of  the  exterior  investments  are 
in  the  British  colonies,  and  the  other  half  in  foreign  lands,  bringing  home  annual 
dividends  of  about  $313,000,000  (1901). 

Races — English,  Scotch,  Welsh,  Irish  and  266,000  foreigners.  Religions — 
Established  Church,  about  19,000,000;  Scottish  Church,  about  1,500,000;  Pro- 
testant Dissenters,  6,000,000;  Roman  Catholics.  5,500,000;  Israelites,  50,000. 
Foreign  trade  (1903)— imports,  $2,796,330,976;  exports,  $1,840,608,529. 

Greece,, — A  limited  monarchy.  Area,  25,224  square  miles.  Population, 
2,433,806.  Between  35°-40°  north  latitude  and  20°-26°east  longitude..  Capital, 
Athens;  population,  111,486.  Other  towns,  Pirasus  (port  of  Athens),  42,169; 
Patras,  37,958;  Trikala,  21,149;  Corfu,  17,918.  The  kingdom  includes  many 
islands  of  the  ./Egean  and  Ionian  seas.  Greece  has  two  main  divisions,  northern 
Greece  and  the  Morea,  connected  only  by  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Corinth.  Both 
parts  are  covered  by  mountains  and  hills,  the  only  considerable  plain  being  that 
of  Thessaly,  in  the  north.  The  mountains  are  mostly  barren  and  arid,  but. 
the  islands,  though  mountainous,  are  tolerably  fertile.  The  rivers  are  merely 
coast  streams,  and  Greece  is  not  richly  supplied  with  water.  The  irregularity 
of  the  coast  line,  aifording  many  good  harbors,  is  of  much  importance.  The 
coasts  and  islands  have  a  mild  climate,  but  the  isolated  mountain  gorges  and 
valleys  suffer  from  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  Only  19  per  cent,  of  the  area 
is  cultivated,  and  agriculture  is  backward  and  does  not  produce  sufficient 
cereals  for  home  consumption.  The  best  farming  region  is  the  highly  fertile 
plain  of  Thessaly,  from  which  considerable  wheat  is  derived.  Barley,  maize 
and  rice  are  also  important  crops.  The  conditions  are  favorable  for  tobacco 
culture,  and  a  large  part  of  the  so-called  Egyptian  cigarettes  is  made  from 
the  tobacco  of  Greece.  Stock  raising  is  insignificant,  sheep  and  goats  take  the 
place  of  cows,  and  much  cheese  is  made  from  sheep's  milk.  Lead,  zinc  and  man- 
ganese are  mined.  The  household  industries  are  most  important,  but  cotton  and 
woolen  .cloths  are  produced  in  a  number  of  towns.  Zante  and  some  other  regions 
produce  the  famous  Zante  currant,  which  is  the  chief  export.  Communications  are 
poor  and  insufficient.  Races — the  Greeks  are  descended  from  the  ancient  Greeks, 
with  Illyrian  and  other  admixtures ;  Albanians,  Wallachians,  Armenians,  Turks, 
etc.  Religion — Greek  Orthodox,  20,000  other  Christians,  6,000  Israelites,  24.000 
Mohammedans.  Trade  (1902)— imports,  $26,034,000;  exports,  $15,466,000. 

Greenland. — The  largest  island  of  the  world.  Area,  about  515,000  square 
miles,  or  one-sixth  as  large  as  the  United  States ;  area  of  coast-lands  not  covered 
by  glaciers,  about  35,000  square  miles.  Between  60°-83°  40'  north  latitude  and 
20°-75°  west  longitude.  The  inhabited  parts  of  the  west  and  east  coast  are 
occupied  by  Denmark  as  far  as  74°  north  latitude  on  the  west  and  67°  north 
latitude  on  the  east  coast.  Population,  10,500  (Eskimos  and  a  few  Danes) 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD.  61 

on  the  Danish  west  coast,  about  500  on  the  Danish  east  coast;  about  500 
(Arctic  highlanders)  in  northwest  Greenland  between  Cape  York  and  Etah.  The 
interior  is  covered  by  an  ice-cap  thousands  of  feet  in  thickness,  the  coasts  are 
mountainous,  with  deep  fiords,  and  many  glaciers  move  down  them  from  the  in- 
land ice.  The  ends  of  the  glaciers  at  the  sea  edge  break  off  as  icebergs,  and  many " 
float  southward  to  the  tracks  of  trans- Atlantic  steamers.  The  coastal  vegetation 
is  scanty,  chiefly  mosses  and  lichens,  with  here  and  there  patches  of  grass.  The 
few  stunted  trees  in  south  Greenland  rarely  grow  higher  than  a  man's  head.  The 
chief  animals  are  the  musk-ox,  reindeer,  Arctic  fox,  polar  bear,  and  the  coast 
waters  are  frequented  by  seals,  walruses,  fish,  some  whales,  and  countless  num- 
bers of  eider  ducks  and  other  birds.  The  natives  struggle  hard  to  gain  a  liveli- 
hood. Seal  blubber  is  transformed  into  train  oil,  and  seal,  polar  bear  and 
white  fox  skins,  eider  down  and  a  little  whalebone  are  collected.  Coal  is  found, 
but  the  only  mineral  of  importance  yet  worked  is  cryolite,  the  mines  at  Ivigtut 
being  the  only  known  deposits  of  commercial  importance.  This  mineral  is  mined 
by  Americans  under  contract  with  the  Danish  government.  Danish  trading 
stations  supply  the  Eskimos  with  commodities  in  exchange  for  the  collection  of 
skins,  etc.,  which  they  make. 

Guam. — A  Pacific  colony  of  the  United  States.  The  largest,  most  populous 
and  most  southern  of  the  Marianne  Islands,  a  group  lying  along  145°  east  longi- 
tude, between  13°-20°  north  latitude.  Area,  207  square  miles.  The  highest  land 
is  only  1,274  feet  above  the  sea.  A  mountain  chain  extends  near  the  southeastern 
and  southern  coasts,  the  rest  of  the  island  being  mainly  a  plateau  heavily 
forested  with  cocoanut  groves,  maize,  taro  and  garden  truck  planted  in  narrow 
strips  along  the  sea.  The  interior  of  the  island  has  not  been  cultivated,  but 
almost  the  entire  southern  half  is  well  adapted  for  cattle  ranches,  and  the 
northern  half  for  coffee,  cacao  and  cocoanuts.  The  climate  is  healthful,  and  on 
the  whole  pleasant,  the  heat  being  tempered  by  sea  breezes.  Eainfall  is  heavy 
between  June  and  December,  and  the  island  is  occasionally  visited  by  severe 
typhoons.  The  inhabitants  are  the  native  Chamorros  (devout  Catholics),  some 
immigrants  from  other  islands  and  the  American  contingent.  The  population  is 
about  10,000,  of  whom  three-fifths  live  in  the  town  of  Agana.  Other  towns  in 
order  of  size  and  importance  are  Sume,  Agat,  Merizo,  Inarajam,  Umatac,  Piti 
and  Sinajana,  ranging  in  population  from  650  to  150%  By  far  the  most  valuable 
crop  is  the  cocoanut  (copra),  followed  by  sugar,  coffee  and  cacao.  The  commerce 
is  very  small,  but  the  development  of  copra-drying  promises  to  be  a  source  of 
prosperity. 

Guatemala. — A  republic  of  Central  America.  Area,  46,774  square  miles; 
population  (1900),  1,574,338.  Between  13°-18°  north  latitude  and  89°-93°  west 
longitude.  Capital,  Guatemala;  population,  71,527.  Guatemala  has  larger  busi- 
ness relations  with  the  rest  of  the  world  than  any  other  Central  American 
republic.  Most  of  it  is  an  elevated  plateau,  with  a  broad  frontage  on  the  Pacific 
and  a  very  short  Atlantic  coast  line.  Maize  and  black  beans,  the  chief  food 
staples  in  Central  America,  are  grown  everywhere,  and  coffee,  the  great  export 
crop,  thrives  from  the  Pacific  to  the  center  of  the  republic.  Much  sugar  made 
from  the  sugar-cane  is  consumed  at  home,  but  little  is  exported.  Cotton-fields 


62  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

and  sheep  pastures  on  the  higher  lands  supply  liber  for  spinners  and  weavers, 
and  cattle  scattered  over  the  plateaus  yield  hides  for  export.  Most  of  the  com- 
modities required  by  the  people,  except  textiles  and  flour,  are  the  products  of 
home  industry.  A  railroad  from  the  Atlantic  ascends  the  valley  of  the  Motagua 
River  to  the  city  of  Guatemala,  which  is  also  connected  by  rail  with  the  Pacific 
port  of  San  Jose.  Livingston  and  Puerto  Barrios,  the  Atlantic  ports,  ship 
much  coffee.  Races,  Spanish- American  and  Indian.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic. 
Trade  (1903)— imports,  $3,035,520;  exports,  $6,863,443. 

Guiana,  British. — A  British  colony  in  South  America.  Area,  109,000 
square  miles;  population,  294,943.  Between  l°-8°  north  latitude  and  57°-62° 
west  longitude.  Capital,  Georgetown;  population  (1891),  53,176.  The  low 
coastal  plain,  hot  and  fertile,  is  covered  with  plantations,  cultivation  being  con- 
fined chiefly  to  this  narrow  zone,  where  most  of  the  population  lives.  Further* 
inland  the  country  becomes  hilly  and  mountainous,  with  wide  forest  areas  and 
considerable  gold.  The  short  Demerara  railroad  was  the  first  to  be  built  in 
South  America.  It  was  constructed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  sugar  industry, 
which,  with  its  by-products,  rum  and  molasses,  was  long  the  great  industry 
of  the  three  Guianas.  Cheap  sugar  at  last  seriously  injured  the  industry, 
and  the  plantations  also  suffered  from  encroachments  of  the  sea.  Many  planters 
abandoned  sugar  for  tobacco  and  rice.  Gold,  rubber,  sugar  and  rice  are  sent  to 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  the  imports  consisting  of  foodstuffs  and 
general  manufactures.  Races — 6  per  cent,  whites,  40  per  cent.  East  Indian 
coolies,  41  per  cent,  negroes,  Chinese,  mixed  breeds  and  Indians.  Foreign 
trade  (1902)— imports,  $6,975,000;  exports,  $10,350,000. 

Guiana,  Dutch. — A  colony  of  the  Netherlands  in  South  America,  east  of 
British  Guiana.  Area,  46,060  square  miles;  population,  81,000.  Capital,  Para- 
maribo; population,  32,146.  The  physical  features  are  like  those  of  British 
Guiana  (which  see).  In  both  Dutch  and  French  Guiana  sugar  cultivation  is  con- 
siderably smaller  than  in  British  Guiana,  and  primitive  methods  are  employed 
for  making  sugar.  Considerable  cacao  is  produced.  The  commercial  center  is 
Paramaribo,  and  nearly  the  entire  trade  is  with  the  Netherlands.  The  gold 
exports  are  over  $500,000  a  year.  Races,  chiefly  Dutch,  also  negroes  and 
Indians.  Foreign  trade  (1904)— imports,  $2,300,000;  exports,  $2,150,000. 

Guiana,  French. — A  penal  colony  of  France,  east  of  Dutch  Guiana,  in  South 
America.  Area,  31,000  square  miles;  population,  30,310.  Capital,  Cayenne; 
population  10,600.  A  few  thousand  French  convicts,  most  of  them  free,  live  in 
the  colony.  It  differs  from  British  and  Dutch  Guiana,  as  its  200  miles  of  coast 
lands  are  comparatively  high,  and  its  islands  supply  phosphates  for  export.  It  is 
little  developed,  and  has  comparatively  few  plantations.  Cacao  grows  wild,  and 
its  cultivation  was  long  important,  but  has  declined  because  the  people  are 
neglecting  agriculture  for  gold  mining,  which,  with  sugar  and  coffee,  is  its  chief 
interest.  Races — French,  Indian  and  negro.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with  France. 
Foreign  trade  (1902)— imports,  $2,450,000;  exports,  $1,750,000. 

Haiti. — A  French  colony  (1697-1801).  A  negro  republic  on  the  island  of 
Haiti,  "West  Indies.  Area,  10,204  square  miles;  population  (1901),  1,294,400. 
Between  18°-20°  north  latitude  and  71°-75°  west  longitude.  Capital,  Port  au 


I VI  I  UNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD.  63 

Prince,  population,  61,000;  Cape  Haitien,  29,000;  Aux  Cayes,  25,000.  Very 
mountainous;  interior  communications  so  poor  that  the  people  usually  prefer  to 
take  the  sea  route  to  other  parts  of  the  coasts.  Climate,  tropical,  tempered  by 
the  northeast  trade  winds.  Coffee  is  the  chief  product  and  export,  and  is  supe- 
rior in  quality,  though  little  attention  is  paid  to  its  cultivation.  Logwood  and 
cacao  are  other  important  exports.  The  coarse  cotton  textiles,  breadstuffs  and 
kerosene,  which  form  most  of  the  imports,  are  largely  supplied  by  the  United 
States.  Kace,  French-speaking  negroes.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign 
trade  (1901)— imports,  $5,500,000;  exports,  $12,760,000. 

Hawaii. — Or  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Annexed  to  the  United  States  in  1898, 
and  organized  as  a  Territory  in  1900.  Include  eleven  islands,  eight  of  which  are 
inhabited.  In  the  Pacific  (Polynesia),  between  18°-23°  north  latitude  and  154°- 
161°  west  longitude.  Area,  6,449  square  miles;  population,  154,000.  Capital, 
Honolulu;  population,  39,306.  The  islands  are  separated  from  one  another  by 
ocean  channels  varying  in  width  from  6  to  61  miles.  In  order  of  size,  the  inhabited 
islands  are:  Hawaii,  2,000,000  acres;  Maui,  400,000;  Oahu  (seat  of  government), 
360,000;  Kauai,  350,000;  Molokai  (partly  leper  settlement),  200,000;  Lanai, 
100,000;  Niihau,  70,000;  Kahulawe,  30,000.  Small  as  they  are,  they  embrace 
about  as  much  territory  as  all  the  rest  of  Polynesia.  Oahu,  the  most  populous 
and  important  commercially,  is  as  large  as  the  Society  group.  Maui  has  about  the 
same  area  as  the  Marquesas  group,  and  the  island  of  Hawaii,  with  the  remain- 
ing islands,  is  nearly  as  large  as  all  the  other  groups  of  Polynesia. 

Hawaii  is  at  the  cross-roads  of  the  Pacific,  where  vessels  in  the  American- 
Japanese  and  American- Australian  trades  put  into  port.  The  group  is  also  the 
starting-point  for  expeditions  to  Bering  Strait  and  the  South  Sea.  The  geo- 
graphical position  of  Hawaii  in  the  central  Pacific  thus  attracts  much  shipping. 
The  group  is  purely  volcanic,  rising  abruptly  from  deep  water,  and  containing  the 
loftiest  summits  of  any  oceanic  islands  (Mauna  Loa  and  Mauna  Kea,  in  Hawaii, 
nearly  14,000  feet).  The  volcanic  forces  are  extinct  in  the  west,  but  very  active 
in  the  east.  Below  the  mountains  are  fertile  plains  and  valleys.  All  the  soils  are 
derived  from  basaltic  lavas.  Sedimentary  soils,  covering  the  levels  bordering  the 
sea,  are  very  deep  and  rich.  The  dark  red  soils  are  immediately  above  the  sedi- 
mentary flats  and  lowlands,  and  have  high  fertility.  The  light  red  soils  on  the 
uplands,  near  the  mountains,  are  of  small  depth  and  less  fertile.  The  climate  is 
about  ten  degrees  cooler  than  that  of  any  other  land  in  the  same  latitude.  The 
windward  side  of  the  mountains  has  abundant  rain,  but  there  is  much  less  on  the 
leeward  side,  where  most  of  the  plantations  are  situated.  The  islands  are  wholly 
dependent  upon  agriculture.  Cane-sugar  employs  most  of  the  capital  and  labor, 
furnishes  most  of  the  exports,  and  maintains  most  of  the  people.  Xearly  all  the 
plantations  have  their  own  mills  and  manufacture  all  the  raw  sugar  produced 
from  their  cane.  The  product  is  about  250,000  to  300,000  tons  a  year,  and  the 
yield  of  sugar  per  acre  is  from  6,000  to  over  9,000  pounds.  Rice,  growing  on 
the  lowest  flats  and  close  to  the  sea,  has  the  second  place.  The  rice-growers  are 
almost  wholly  Chinese.  The  coffee  berry  grows  wild  and  is  cultivated  on  the 
four  larger  islands,  but  the  production  as  yet  is  comparatively  small.  Chinese 
gardeners  supply  Honolulu  with  nearly  all  its  vegetables.  Bananas  and  pineapples 


64  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD. 

are  the  only  fruits  figuring  in  the  exports.  The  forest  areas  are  considerable,  but 
have  suffered  great  reduction.  Sufficient  cattle  are  maintained  for  beef  and  milk, 
but  the  chief  supply  of  butter  is  by  importation.  Most  of  the  plantation  labor 
is  supplied  by  Chinese  and  Japanese.  The  native  Hawaiians  incline  to  work  for 
themselves  rather  than  to  take  service  with  employers,  and  the  Portuguese  immi- 
grants, energetic  and  thrifty  people,  are  mostly  engaged  in  horticulture.  The 
American,  British  and  Germans  control  the  planting  and  commercial  interests, 
which  are  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  American  settlers  and  their  descendants.  About 
three-fourths  of  the  imports  come  from  the  United  States.  Raw  sugar  is  about 
nineteen-twentieths  of  the  exports,  and  nearly  all  of  it  is  sent  to  California 
refineries. 

Honduras. — A  republic  of  Central  America.  Area,  46,300  square  miles; 
population  (1902),  650,000.  Between  13°-17°  north  latitude  and  83°-87°  west 
longitude.  Capital,  Tegucigalpa,  in  the  gold  and  silver  region;  population,  26,265. 
It  is  second  in  size  of  the  Central  American  republics,  but  though  rich  in  resources, 
has  little  commercial  development.  The  population  cannot  supply  sufficient  labor 
for  so  large  an  area,  transportation  facilities  are  very  poor,  and  fully  half  of  the 
country  is  still  a  virgin  waste.  The  interior  plateau  maintains  many  cattle,  hides 
and  live  animals  being  important  exports.  The  long  Caribbean  coast  produces  many 
bananas  and  other  fruit  for  United  States  consumption,  and  the  Atlantic  forests 
abound  with  fine  tropical  timber.  Gold  and  silver  are  the  leading  exports, 
though  the  mining  development  is  small.  The  United  States  supplies  a  large 
part  of  the  imports,  in  which  textiles  and  hardware  are  prominent.  The  Atlantic 
ports,  Truxillo,  Ceiba  and  Puerto  Cortez,  have  connections  with  the  United 
States.  The  Pacific  coast,  only  forty  miles  long,  has  the  fine  natural  harbor  of 
Amapala,  from  which  the  metals  are  shipped.  Races,  Spanish- American  and 
Indians.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic.  Trade  (1902)— imports,  $1,672,000;  ex- 
ports, $2,357,000. 

India. — A  part  of  the  British  Empire.  Area,  1,560,160  square  miles ;  includes 
Upper  and  Lower  Burma;  population,  295,215,000.  Between  7°-36°  north  latitude 
and  62°-104°  east  longitude.  The  capital  is  Calcutta,  population  1,026,987;  Bom- 
bay, 776,006;  Madras,  509, 346;  Haiderabad,  448,466  ;Lucknow,  264,049;  Rangoon, 
232,326.  Executive  authority  is  vested  in  the  Yiceroy,  appointed  by  the  crown. 
India  has  three  distinctly  defined  physical  regions:  the  Himalaya  Mountain  dis- 
trict, the  North  Indian  Plain,  and  the  Plateau  of  the  Deccan.  The  colossal  ranges 
of  the  Himalayas  stretch  for  1,500  miles  along  the  north  of  the  country.  They 
divide  India  from  the  plateau  of  central  Asia.  South  of  the  Himalayas  is  the 
Great  North  Indian  Plain,  well  watered  and  for  the  most  part  well  cultivated.  East 
of  the  Indus  delta,  however,  is  the  Thar  Desert,  which  stretches  away  almost  to 
the  base  of  the  Himalayas.  The  triangular  plateau  of  the  Deccan,  from  1,600  to 
3.000  feet  high,  occupies  the  south  of  the  country.  India  has  great  rivers,  but 
the  only  very  important  ones  for  navigation  are  the  smoothly  flowing  Ganges 
and  the  Irawadi,  of  Burma.  The  Indus  and  the  streams  of  the  Deccan  are  too 
impetuous  for  convenient  navigation. 

India  has  many  climates,  but  all,  except  regions  high  among  the  Himalayas 
or  in  favored  parts  of  the  Deccan,  may  be  called  more  or  less  tropical.  Only  two 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD.  65- 

seasons  are  recognized — the  dry  and  the  rainy  season.  The  southwest  monsoon 
in  summer  brings  an  enormous  quantity  of  water  vapor,  with  which  it  drenches 
the  Western  Ghats,  and  usually  has  enough  left  for  the  interior  highlands;  but 
sometimes  this  monsoon  does  not  continue  long  enough  to  give  the  Plateau  of  the 
Deccan  sufficient  rain.  Then  crops  fail,  and  a  famine  may  ensue  resulting  in  the 
death  of  many  thousands.  Many  millions  of  the  inhabitants  being  Brahmanists, 
they  are  strict  vegetarians,  and  the  mortality  in  time  of  famine  is  increased  by 
the  fact  that  they  will  not  kill  their  domestic  animals  for  food. 

Three-fifths  of  the  people  are  farmers.  They  carry  on  agriculture  in  a  prim- 
itive way,  and  fertilizers  are  little  used,  but  great  irrigation  systems  have  been 
developed  in  large  districts.  Rice,  the  principal  food,  can  be  cultivated  only  in 
well- watered  regions  such  as  Bengal,  the  coasts  of  the  Deccan  and  the  valleys. 
Wheat  is  sown  chiefly  in  the  drier  northwest  (Punjab),  and  though  it  is  an  uncer- 
tain crop,  it  is  often  raised  in  enormous  quantities,  much  of  it  being  sent  to 
Europe.  Next  in  importance  are  the  fiber  crops.  India  sends  a  great  deal  of 
cotton  to  China  and  Japan,  in  addition  to  the  supply  consumed  in  its  manufactures. 
The  fiber  is  shorter  than  our  staple,  and  inferior  in  quality.  Jute,  cultivated  in 
the  damp  warm  climate  of  Bengal,  holds  second  rank  among  the  fibers.  Opium  is 
a  large  export,  chiefly  to  China.  The  teas  of  India  and  Ceylon  have  injured  the 
Chinese  tea  trade  in  the  British  Empire,  and  are  invading  many  other  markets. 
Animal  raising  is  not  important;  cows  give  very  little  milk,  but  zebus  (an  Indian 
variety  of  cattle)  are  used  for  draft  purposes.  The  yield  of  salt  is  large,  and  coal 
mining  is  constantly  increasing.  Little  else  is  done  to  develop  India's  mineral 
wealth.  India  has  been  famous  for  centuries  for  its  shawls,  textile  fabrics, 
weapons,  etc.,  and  in  recent  years  it  has  developed  modern  manufactures,  such 
as  tanneries,  ship-yards,  iron  foundries,  etc.  Still,  the  home  supply  of  manufac- 
tures is  inadequate,  and  an  enormous  quantity  of  them  is  imported.  Religions 
—207,700,000  Hindus  (Brahmanists),  57, 300, 000  Mohammedans,  9, 300,000  nature 
worshipers,  8,500,000  Buddhists,  2,300,000  Christians,  1,900,000  Sikhs.  Foreign 
trade  (fiscal  year  1902-3)— imports,  $255,614,000;  exports,  $408,396,000. 

Italy. — A  limited  monarchy.  Area,  110,684  square  miles;  population (1904),. 
33,218,328.  Between  37°  and  47°  north  latitude  and  6°  and  19°  east  longitude. 
Capital,  Rome,  population,  462,783;  Naples,  563,540;  Milan,  491,460;  Turin, 
335,656;  Palermo,  309,692;  Genoa,  234,710;  Florence,  205,589;  Venice,  151,840. 
The  northern  part  of  Italy  is  continental  and  the  southern  part  consists  of  a  pen- 
insula and  a  number  of  islands,  including  Sicily,  Sardinia  and  Elba.  The  con- 
tinental portion  is  the  great  fertile  plain  of  the  Po  River.  Hemmed  in  between 
the  Alps  and  the  Apennines,  this  plain  is  the  scene  of  Italy's  greatest  industrial 
and  agricultural  activity.  The  Apennines  are  the  backbone  of  the  peninsula, 
extending  down  its  center.  Most  of  the  peninsula  is  well  watered,  but  it  has 
almost  no  large  rivers.  Agriculture  is  in  a  backward  condition,  and  the 
peasantry  are  very  poor.  The  farm  lands  are  usually  held  in  large  estates,  and 
leased  in  parcels  to  the  peasants.  This  policy  is  unfavorable  for  high  tillage. 
Wheat  is  the  chief  crop,  and  much  of  it  is  used  with  Black  Sea  imports  in 
preparing  macaroni,  of  which  Italy  makes  enormous  quantities.  The  wine  crop 
is  next  in  .value  to  wheat,  most  of  it  and  the  best  qualities  coming  from  the 
5 


'66  INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

south.  Italy  is  the  only  country  of  Europe  raising  large  quantities  of  rice. 
The  production  of  raw  silk  is  the  largest  in  Europe.  Most  of  the  mulberry 
trees  feeding  the  silkworms  are  on  the  Lombardy  plain,  while  raw  silk  is  sent  to 
all  the  leading  nations,  silk  manufactures  being  of  much  smaller  importance. 

Italy  is  rich  in  useful  minerals,  but  very  poor  in  coal,  so  that  a  great  deal  must 
be  imported.  The  sulphur  mines  of  Sicily  supply  most  of  the  world's  demand. 
Great  quantities  of  salt  are  obtained  from  mines  or  by  evaporating  sea- water. 
Iron  ore  is  obtained  chiefly  from  Elba,  but  most  of  it  is  exported,  as  there  is  little 
development  of  iron  manufactures.  The  famous  marble  of  Carrara  and  Massa 
finds  a  wide  market.  Lack  of  coal  is  unfavorable  for  the  development  of  indus- 
tries, but  manufacturing  enterprises  are  slowly  growing.  Races,  Italian  and 
61,415  foreigners.  Religions — 62,000  Protestants,  38,000  Israelites,  the  rest  Ro- 
man Catholics.  Foreign  trade  (1903)— imports,  $408,835,350;  exports,  $308,- 
652,930. 

Jamaica. — The  largest  colony  of  Great  Britain  in  the  "West  Indies.  Pop- 
ulation, 755,730.  Between  17°  and  19°  north  latitude  and  76°  and  79°  west  longi- 
tude. Capital,  Kingston;  population,  50,000.  A  mountain  range  forms  the  axis 
of  the  island,  extending  through  it  from  east  to  west,  the  highest  peak  rising  to 
7,400  feet.  Climate,  tropical,  Vith  cooler  temperature  in  the  highlands.  All 
tropical  productions  are  grown  to  perfection.  The  sugar  plantations  were  once 
famous,  but  many  planters  have  abandoned  the  industry,  owing  to  low  sugar 
prices;  and  fruits,  chiefly  bananas  and  oranges,  now  form  nearly  half  the  exports. 
Coffee,  rum,  sugar,  pimento  and  Jamaica  ginger  are  also  important  exports.  The 
highways  are  fairly  good,  and  three  railroads  serve  the  eastern  half  of  the  island, 
but  Jamaica  is  still  far  behind  Cuba  and  Porto  liico  in  economic  development. 
Races — negro,  mixed  breeds,  white — only  2.5  per  cent,  of  the  whole — and  East 
Indians  about  the  same  proportion.  Foreign  trade  (1902)— imports,  $4,530,000; 
exports,  $4,590,000. 

Japan. — A  limited  monarchy.  Area,  160,969  square  miles;  population,  48,- 
351,764  (with  Formosa).  Between  22°-51°  north  latitude  and  120°-155°  east  Ion 
gitude.  Capital,  Tokio,  population  1,440,121;  Osaka,  821,235;  Kioto,  353,139; 
Nagoya,  244,145;  Kobe,  215,780;  Yokohama,  .193,762;  Hiroshima.  122,306; 
^Nagasaki,  107,422.  Like  Great  Britain,  Japan  is  an  island  kingdom.  Important 
international  events  of  recent  years  have  placed  Japan  in  the  first  rank  among 
nations — in  the  peace  settlement  between  Japan  and  Russia  (1905)  of  the  conten- 
tions that  caused  Japan  to  make  war  on  Russia,  Japan  was  by  treaty  ceded  the  half 
of  Sakhalin  Island  from  the  50th  parallel  south,  and  her  sphere  of  influence  in 
Korea  was  conceded  to  be  complete,  amounting  practically  to  a  suzerainty.  In 
China  her  concessions  in  this  settlement  were  varied  and  valuable  and  her  prestige 
in  that  nation  is  greatly  increased.  The  empire  consists  of  four  large  islands  and 
a  great  number  (nearly  4,000)  of  smaller  ones.  These  islands  are  mountainous, 
and  a  few  volcanic  summits,  such  as  Fusiyama,  readh  a  height  of  12,000  feet 
or  more.  Narrow  plains  along  the  coasts  and  fertile  valleys  among  the  moun- 
tains are  sources  of  largest  wealth.  There  are  no  great  rivers,  but  numerous 
mountain  torrents  pour  down  the  slopes  with  short  but  rapid  courses  to  the  sea. 
An  extensive  system  of  canals  provides  irrigation  that  supplements  the  rainfall. 


INTERNATIONAL,   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   CF  THE   WORLD.  67 

The  climate  is  very  moist,  and  is  cooler  than  that  of  countries  of  the  same  latitude 
in  Europe  or  North  Africa.  Violent  volcanic  outbursts  sometimes  occur,  and  the 
country  is  liable  to  frequent  and  disastrous  earthquakes.  The  last  very  destruc- 
tive calamity  of  this  nature,  the  Nagoya-Gifu  earthquake  of  1891,  killed  nearly 
10,000  people,  injured  20,000,  and  destroyed  130, 000  houses. 

Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation,  and  is  carried  on  with  painstaking 
minuteness.  Large  areas  in  the  mountain  regions  cannot  be  tilled,  but  many 
mountains  are  cleared  of  forest  and  cultivated  to  their  very  tops,  and  bare  rocks 
are  covered  with  soil  brought  from  a  distance.  All  the  Ian Js  belong  to  the  state, 
and  are  leased  to  the  farmers,  who  pay  a  land  tax.  The  chief  crop  is  rice  of  su- 
perior quality.  The  various  cereals  and  vegetables  are  grown  with  success,  and 
cotton  is  raised  in  the  south.  The  mulberry  thrives,  and  the  largest  island  pro- 
duces a  great  deal  of  raw  silk.  From  an  export  point  of  view,  tea,  which  is  scat- 
tered over  large  areas  in  the  three  southern  islands,  is  most  important.  The 
United  States  buys  great  quantities  of  Japanese  tea.  The  most  important  mem- 
bers of  the  animal  kingdom  are  silkworms,  bees  and  poultry.  As  the  Japanese 
seldom  eat  meat,  they  have  no  use  for  cattle  except  for  draft  purposes.  A  ^mall 
breed  of  Corean  horses  is  raised.  The  mineral  wealth  is  not  large,  though  coal 
is  mined  in  Yezo  and  Kiusiu.  Japan  has  the  largest  copper  mines  of  Asia,  cop- 
per being  the  only  metal  exported.  Iron,  steel  and  their  products  are  large 
imports.  The  empire  abounds  with  the  clays  that  are  the  basis  of  its  famous 
earthenware  industries. 

Modern  manufactures  have  had  wonderful  development  in  the  past  forty  years. 
The  Japanese  were  quick  to  see  the  advantages  of  Western  methods,  and  have 
applied  them  with  great  dexterity.  Many  of  their  products,  however,  are  not 
equal  in  quality  to  those  they  imitate.  Their  manufactures  are  in  great  variety, 
and  not  a  few  of  them  supply  the  home  need.  So  many  of  the  people  have  been 
diverted  from  farming  to  other  industries  that  the  cost  of  living  has  considerably 
increased  of  late  years.  Among  the  best  industrial  products  are  steamships  and 
steam  engines,  cotton  and  silk  goods.  The  people  can  milk  and  vegetables,  and 
actually  export  imitation  Swedish  matches  and  Bohemian  glass  to  Europe.  The 
internal  trade  is  facilitated  by  over  5,000  post-offices,  excellent  highways,  a  grow- 
ing railroad  system,  and  thousands  of  miles  of  telegraph  line.  About  70  per  cent, 
of  the  foreign  trade  passes  through  the  port  of  Yokohama,  and  Kobe  is  the  second 
largest  port.  The  economic  progress  of  Japan  is  indicated  by  the  following 
figures:  Capital  invested  in  industrial  companies,  1896,  298,000,000  yen  (silver  yen 
equals  53  cents);  1901,  829,000,000  yen.  Bank  deposits  in  Tokio,  1893,  37,000,- 
000  yen;  1903,  132,600,000  yen.  Races,  Japanese  and  about  15,000  foreigners. 
Religions— chiefly  Buddhist,  56,000  Roman  Catholics,  47,000  Protestants,  27,000 
Greek  Orthodox.  Trade  (1903),  including  Formosa — imports,  $165,350,180; 
exports,  $150,691,947. 

Liberia. — A  negro  republic  in  West  Africa.  Area  (estimated),  37,000  square 
miles;  population  (estimated),  1,500,000,  including  25,000  legroes  from  the  United 
States,  or  their  descendants.  On  the  Atlantic  coast,  between  5°  and  8°  north 
latitude.  Interior  boundaries,  except  between  Sierra  Leone  and  Liberia,  not 
exactly  denned.  Capital,  Monrovia;  population,  5,000.  Settled  by  emigrants 


68  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

from  the  United  States,  the  constitution  is  modeled  after  that  of  this  country 
"With  a  coast  line  of  300  miles,  Liberia  is  confined  to  the  basins  of  the  coast  streams, 
none  of  which  is  important  for  navigation.  The  civilized  population  lives  in 
towns  along  the  coast  and  the  farming  districts  near  them,  or  penetrates  a  short 
distance  up  the  streams.  Behind  the  mangrove  and  pandanus  swamps  near  the 
coast  the  country  rises  towards  the  interior,  the  successive  steps  of  elevation  being 
marked  by  rapids  in  the  rivers.  Most  of  the  interior  is  covered  with  dense 
forests,  among  which  the  native  population  chiefly  lives  in  a  state  of  barbarism, 
as  few  are  under  government  influence  or  control.  Nearly  all  the  colonists  live 
by  farming  or  the  collection  of  palm  oil  and  palm  kernels.  The  chief  exports  are 
coffee  of  excellent  quality  and  palm  oil.  Monrovia  and  Great  Bassa  are  the  chief 
ports.  Race,  negro.  Under  the  law  no  white  man  may  become  a  citizen.  The 
official  language  is  English,  and  most  of  the  civilized  negroes  are  Protestants. 
Foreign  trade  (1902)— imports,  $180,750;  exports.  $382,250. 

Luxemburg. — A  grand  duchy  of  Europe.  This  state,  of  triangular  shape, 
occupies  the  east  slope  of  the  Ardennes.  Area,  1,008  square  miles;  population, 
236,543.  Capital  and  only  important  town,  Luxemburg;  population,  about 
30,000.  Situated  in  about  50°  north  latitude  and  6°  east  longitude.  Its  neutrality 
is  guaranteed  by  the  great  powers.  The  agricultural  interests,  including  wine, 
mines,  quarries  and  industrial  establishments,  arc  important.  Nationalities, 
German  and  about  4,000  French-speaking  persons.  As  Luxemburg  forms  part 
of  the  German  Zollverein,  it  has  no  independent  trade  statistics. 

Madagascar. — A  colony  of  France  and  the  fourth  largest  island  in  the 
world.  Area,  230, 000  square  miles;  population,  2,505,237.  Between  12°-26°  south 
latitude  and  43°-51°  east  longitude.  Capital,  Tananarive,  population,  55,000. 
Madagascar  is  930  miles  long,  and  its  broadest  portion,  near  the  center,  is  350 
miles  across.  It  has  a  regular  form,  with  few  indentations,  excepting  on  the 
northwest  coast,  where  the  best  harbors  are  situated.  Since  the  French  occu- 
pancy in  1895  the  French  have  carefully  explored  the  island.  The  elevated 
interior  rises  from  3,000  to  5,000  feet  above  the  sea.  This  is  the  most  healthful 
region.  Around  it  is  a  comparatively  level  country,  extending  to  the  sea,  much 
of  it  heavily  wooded,  and  not  far  exceeding  600  feet  above  sea  level,  very  fertile, 
but  not  healthful.  The  leading  rivers  flow  to  the  west  coast,  and  some  of  them 
are  navigable  by  small  vessels  for  100  miles  or  so.  The  capital  is  in  the  elevated 
interior,  where  live  the  Hovas,  the  most  advanced  and  intelligent  of  the  native 
tribes.  The  chief  port  is  Tamatave,  on  the  east  coast,  and  Majunga,  of  less 
importance,  is  the  leading  port  on  the  west  coast.  The  French  (1905)  are  building 
a  railroad  between  Tamatave  and  the  capital,  having  already  extended  excellent 
wagon  roads  from  Tananarive  to  both  the  east  and  the  west  coasts.  Cattle 
breeding  and  agriculture  are  improving  under  the  French  regime,  and  many 
schools  and  a  number  of  hospitals  have  been  established.  The  chief  imports 
are  French  cotton  textiles,  and  ths  exports  are  rubber,  wax,  hides,  gold  and 
vanilla.  Gold  mining  promises  large  development.  Races — Malagasy  tribes, 
including  850,000  Hovas,  and  15,542  Europeans,  1,006  Asiatics  and  foreign 
Africans.  Religions,  chiefly  Protestant;  about  400,000  Catholics.  Foreign, 
trade  (1902)— imports,  $9,200,000;  exports,  $1,800,000. 


INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD.  69 

Mexico. — A  republic  of  North  America.  Area,  76 7, 000  square  miles;  popula- 
tion (1900),  13,605,929.  Between  15°-32°  north  latitude  and  86°-117°  west  longi- 
tude. Capital,  the  City  of  Mexico,  population,  530,723;  Guadalajara,  101,208; 
Puebla,  93,521;  Monterey,  62,266;  St.  Louis  Potosi,  61,019.  Mexico  is  a  wide,  high 
table-land  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  with  mountains  rising 
above  the  plateau  on  theeast  and  west.  There  are  many  volcanic  peaks,  a  few  of  which 
are  active.  The  rivers  are  of  little  economic  importance,  the  chief  streams  being 
the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  forming  the  northeast  boundary,  the  Tabasco,  and  the 
Colorado.  There  are  three  climatic  zones.  On  the  low  and  marshy  east  and 
west  coasts  a  hot  and  unhealthful  climate  prevails,  with  many  earthquakes  and 
hurricanes.  These  coast  lands  are  called  Tierra  calienta.  The  Tierra  templada 
occupies  the  middle  slopes  of  the  coast  mountains,  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  pla- 
teau in  the  interior,  where  the  climate  is  temperate  and  spring  seems  to  be  ever- 
lasting. The  cold  zone,  Tierra fria,  is  found  on  the  more  elevated  table-lands, 
and  the  loftier  summits  are  always  crowned  with  snow.  The  rainy  season  lasts 
from  May  till  October. 

With  great  variety  of  climate,  Mexico  has  many  agricultural  products,  but 
farming  has  not  reached  a  high  level,  though  rapid  progress  is  now  being  made. 
About  one-seventh  of  the  surface  has  been  cleared  for  tillage.  The  tropical 
lowlands  produce  vanilla,  coffee,  sugar-cane,  cotton;  and  in  Yucatan  the  fiber 
heniquen,  or  sisal  hemp,  which  has  become  the  largest  agricultural  export.  Maize 
and  beans  are  very  large  crops,  and  are  the  staple  articles  of  diet.  The  favorite 
national  drink,  pulque,  is  prepared  from  the  agave.  Many  tropical  and  other 
timbers  are  found  in  the  forests.  Most  of  the  agricultural  products  are  consumed 
at  home,  and  Mexico's  tropical  fruits,  tobacco  and  coffee  have  not  yet  entered 
largely  into  the  world's  trade. 

The  breeding  of  domestic  animals  is  growing  in  importance,  and  cattle  ranches 
are  now  numerous  in  northern  Mexico,  many  of  the  cattle  being  sent  into  the 
United  States.  The  horses,  mules,  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs  are  numbered  by  mil- 
lions. But  the  chief  source  of  wealth  is  the  mineral  products. 

Mexico  is  the  richest  silver- producing  country  in  the  world,  and  also  has  large 
quantities  of  gold  and  other  metals.  The  total  production  of  gold  and  silver  in 
the  three  centuries  ending  in  1875  was  about  $3,614,000,000.  Iron-  ore  is  in 
inexhaustible  supply,  and  coal  is  found,  but  comparatively  little  is  mined.  The 
precious  metals,  chiefly  silver,  form  the  greater  part  of  the  exports. 

The  Gulf  ports,  Yera  Cruz  and  Tampico,  were  very  poor,  but  have  recently 
been  converted  at  great  expense  into  safe  and  commodious  harbors.  Yera  Cruz 
is  the  chief  port  of  the  country.  Progreso  is  the  great  heniquen  shipping  port 
of  Yucatan.  The  leading  Pacific  ports  are  Mazatlan,  San  Bias,  Manzanillo,  and 
Acapulco,  but  they  have  little  trade.  Railroads  reach  all  the  most  important 
commercial  centers,  and  connect  at  Eagle  Pass,  El  Pasoaud  Nogales  with  the 
railroad  system  of  the  United  States.  The  railroad  across  the  isthmus  of  Tehuan- 
tepec  has  been  rebuilt,  the  harbors  of  Coatzacoalcos  and  Salina  Cruz,  the  ports  at 
the  termini  of  this  railroad  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Pacific,  have  been 
greatly  improved,  and  the  Mexicans  expect  to  attract  large  interocean  trade 
across  Mexico  at  this  point.  Races — Mexican,  Indian,  and  about  40,000  white 


70  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD. 

foreigners  and  3,000  Chinese.  Religion,  chiefly  Roman  Catholic.  The  exports 
are  larger  than  the  imports.  Textiles,  hardware  and  machinery  are  leading 
imports,  half  of  them  coming  from  the  United  States  and  the  remainder  from 
Europe.  Foreign  trade  (1903)— imports,  $74,690,000;  exports,  $88,200,000. 

Monaco. — A  principality  within  French  territory,  between  Nice  and  Men- 
tone.  Area,  0.58  square  mile;  population,  15, 180.  The  income  of  the  state  is  derived 
chiefly  from  the  tax  imposed  upon  the  famous  gambling  establishment  maintained 
there.  Races,  French  and  Italian.  Trade  is  included  in  the  statistics  of  France. 

Montenegro. — A  principality  of  Europe.  Area,  3, 630  square  miles;  popula- 
tion (1896),  227,841.  Between  41°-44°  north  latitude  and  18°-20°  east  longitude. 
Capital,  Cetinje,  3,000;  Podgoritza,  6,534;  Dulcigno,  5,000.  It  is  a  mountainous, 
bare,  limestone  region,  admirably  adapted  to  maintain  its  independence  against  the 
Turks,  but  it  was  quite  uuable  to  support  even  its  very  frugal  and  warlike  popu- 
lation till  newly  acquired  fertile  districts  bordering  on  the  Adriatic  increased  the 
supply  of  grain,  tobacco,  vines  and  southern  fruits.  The  result  is  that  the  Mon- 
tenegrins have  been  diverted  to  some  extent  from  cattle  raising  to  agriculture. 
There  ^re  no  railroads,  scarcely  any  manufactures,  and  the  small  trade  is  almost 
wholly  with  Austria-Hungary  and  Great  Britain.  Nearly  everything  is  imported 
except  food;  and  animals  and  their  products  are  the  only  exports.  The  seaports 
are  Antivari  and  Dulcigno.  The  people  are  of  Servian  and  to  a  small  extent  of 
Turkish  stock.  Religions,  chiefly  Greek  Orthodox,  with  13,000  Roman  Catholics 
and  13,500  Mohammedans.  Foreign  trade  (1898) — imports,  $700,000;  exports, 
$  600, 000. 

Morocco. — A  sultanate  of  northwest  Africa.  Bounded  by  the  Atlantic 
and  Mediterranean  on  the  west  and  north,  and  by  Algeria  and  the  Sahara  on  the 
east  and  south.  Area,  219,000  square  miles;  population  (estimated),  8,000,000. 
The  three  capitals,  where  the  Sultan  resides  alternately,  are :  Fez,  100,000 ;  Morocco 
City,  55,000,  and  Mequinez.  Tangier,  on  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  is  the  principal  sea- 
port and  the  seat  of  the  foreign  consuls.  Casablanca,  Mazagan  and  Mogador, 
the  Atlantic  ports,  rank  next  to  Tangier  in  the  value  of  goods  shipped. 

Though  mountainous  in  the  north  and  south,  Morocco  on  its  central  plateaus 
has  rich  opportunities  for  agriculture  and  stock-raising.  Its  undeveloped  mineral 
wealth  is  very  great,  and  in  natural  resources  the  state  is  regarded  as  richer  than 
any  other  of  the  Mediterranean  countries  of  Africa.  It  is,  however,  of  little 
commercial  importance,  for  the  government  is  despotic,  the  taxes  are  very  oner- 
ous, life  and  property  are  not  safeguarded,  and  the  fanatical  populace  bitterly 
hate  'all  peoples  of  non-Mohammedan  faith.  Under  such  conditions,  extensive 
commercial  development  is  impossible.  By  agreement  between  France  and  Great 
Britain  and  Spain,  in  1904,  France,  with  the  consent  of  the  Sultan  of  Morocco,  was 
to  be  permitted  to  attempt  in  that  state  the  same  work  of  development  she  has 
achieved  in  Algeria.  If  this  plan  is  carried  out  the  development  of  Morocco 
will  be  commensurate  with  her  opportunities.  Races — Berber,  Arab,  negro, 
etc.  Religion,  Mohammedan.  The  imports  are  chiefly  firearms  and  ammunition, 
textiles  and  hardware,  with  petroleum  from  America.  Exports,  cattle,  wool, 
wax  and  goat-skins.  Foreign  trade  (1902) — imports,  $8,700,000;  exports, 
$6,600,000. 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF  THE   WORLD.  71 

Netherlands,  The. — A  limited  monarchy  of  Europe.  Area,  12,728  square 
miles;  population  (1903),  5,430,973.  Between  51°  and  54°  north  latitude  and 
4°  and  8°  east  longitude.  Capital,  The  Hague,  population,  229,839;  Amsterdam, 
546,534;  Eotterdam,  357,474;  Utrecht,  110,648;  Groningen,  70,609.  Aflatcoun- 
try  with  monotonous  plains,  interrupted  only  by  dunes  and  a  few  higher  undula- 
tions in  the  east  and  south.  The  dunes,  stretching  along  the  coast,  owe  their  exist- 
ence to  the  winds  and  seas,  which  heap  the  sand  into  rows  of  hills.  One-fourth 
of  the  country  lies  below  sea  level,  some  districts  being  from  12  to  20  feet  below. 
The  whole  country  would  be  permanently  under  water  were  it  not  protected  from 
the  sea  by  the  dunes  and  gigantic  embankments  of  earth  faced  with  stone  or  pro- 
tected by  stakes.  These  works  are  called  dikes,  and  they  protect  the  coast  from 
the  sea  at  the  points  where  there  are  no  dunes.  The  climate  is  oceanic  and  moist. 
The  summers  are  not  very  warm  and  the  winters  are  not  often  very  cold.  The 
North  Sea  washes  the  whole  coast  line,  which  is  difficult  of  access  on  account  of 
the  dunes.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Rhine,  the  Meuse,  or  Maas,  and  the  Scheldt. 
The  river  mouths,  with  their  ebb  and  flow,  and  a  number  of  bays,  chiefly  in  the 
ZuiderZee,  form  the  few  harbors,  of  which  Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam  command 
nearly  all  the  sea  trade. 

The  country  is  a  land  of  canals,  all  the  towns  and  villages  being  connected  by 
them.  The  most  important  are  the  North  Holland  Canal,  from  Amsterdam  to 
Helder,  which,  however,  is  not  wide  enough  for  modern  large  ships  to  enter;  the 
North  Sea  Canal,  16  miles  long,  utilized  by  large  steamships  between  Amsterdam 
and  the  North  Sea;  and  the  Rhine  Mouth  Canal,  which  gives  Rotterdam  a  deep 
channel  to  the  sea.  The  most  fertile  provinces  are  in  the  north  and  west,  and  in 
a  part  of  Limburg,  where  agriculture  has  reached  a  very  high  stage.  Grain,  pota- 
toes and  vegetables  are  the  chief  crops.  The  Dutch  excel  in  the  cultivation  of  flow- 
ers, vegetables  and  fruit,  which  are  important  exports  to  neighboring  countries, 
chiefly  England.  The  country  imports  its  timber,  because  it  is  almost  destitute 
of  forests.  One  of  the  greatest  national  resources  is  cattle  rearing,  which  has  at- 
tained "a  development  equalled  in  few  other  countries.  Live  cattle  are  exported, 
and  enormous  quantities  of  cheese  and  butter  are  sent  abroad.  The  superior 
horses  bring  large  prices.  Sheep  are  reared  more  for  their  flesh  than  their  wool, 
great  quantities  of  eggs  are  sent  to  England,  and  fishing  is  a  large  source  of  wealth. 

The  supply  of  minerals  is  very  scanty,  but  some  coal  is  mined  in  the  southeast. 
Peat  is  the  chief  fuel,  and  is  cut  in  large  quantities.  The  Netherlands  is  not  an 
industrial  state,  its  manufactures  hardly  meeting  its  own  demand,  though  calicoes 
are  made  in  great  quantities  for  the  colonial  trade.  Earthenware  of  all  kinds  is 
produced,  and  billions  of  brick  are  made  to  take  the  place  of  stone  in  building, 
there  being  no  building  stone  in  Holland.  Tobacco  and  sugar  refining  are  among 
the  other  leading  industries.  Diamond  cutting  has  decreased,  as  the  industry  has 
to  a  large  extent  been  transferred  to  Paris  and  London.  Railroads  are  used  chiefly 
for  passenger  traffic  and  the  international  freight  trade,  the  canals  being  the 
main  reliance  for  domestic  transportation.  As  the  Dutch  have  one  of  the  largest 
colonial  empires,  and  exploit  their  colonies  strictly  for  their  own  benefit,  these 
possessions  are  a  great  source  of  wealth,  giving  the  Netherlands  much  of  its 
importance  as  a  commercial  nation.  Races,  Dutch,  with  about  50,000  other 


72  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD. 

Europeans.  Keligions — 3,068,129  Protestants,  1,798,915  Koman  .Catholics, 
104,000  Hebrews.  The  chief  trade  is  in  colonial  products,  but  the  larger  part 
of  the  exports  of  home  products  goes  to  neighboring  countries.  Foreign  trade 
(1902)— imports,  $867,308,000;  exports,  $732,975,000. 

Newfoundland. — An  insular  crown  colony  of  Great  Britain.  Area,  42,200 
square  miles.  The  fisheries  of  Labrador  being  practically  monopolized  by  New- 
foundland fishermen,. the. Labrador  coast  is  united  with  Newfoundland  for  admin- 
istrative purposes.  Population,  216,615.  Newfoundland  is  between  46°  and  52° 
north  latitude  and  53°  and  60°  west  longitude.  Capital,  St.  John's,  population, 
30,000;  Harbour  Grace,  6,500.  St.  John's  is  nearer  to  Europe  than  any  other 
port  of  America,  being  only  1,675  miles  from  Cape  Clear,  on  the  west  coast  of 
Ireland.  Though  good  farming  land  is  plentiful  in  the  west  and  in  some  of  the 
valleys,  the  fishing  industry  dominates  everything  and  agriculture  is  neglected. 
Nearly  the  whole  population  is  devoted  to  the  fishing  trade.  The  hair  seal  is 
hunted  by  many  vessels  for  its  oil  and  skin  and  the  cod,  herring  and  lobster 
fisheries  give  employment  to  most  of  the  men.  Fish  is  cured  in  great  quantities; 
dried  cod  fish  (half  the  exports)  is  sent  to  many  countries,  and  fertilizers  from 
fish  offal,  glue  and  cod  liver  oil,  besides  canned  lobsters,  are  exported.  Food 
and  clothing  are  the  chief  imports,  most  of  these  purchases  coming  from  Great 
Britain,  Canada  and  the  United  States.  Race,  chiefly  British.  Religion,  Pro- 
testant. The  imports  and  exports  are  each  about  $8,000,000  a  year. 

New  Zealand. — A  British  island  colony.  Area,  104,471  square  miles ;  popu- 
lation (with  island  dependencies) ,  863, 364.  Between  34°  and  47°  south  latitude  and 
166°  and  179°  east  longitude.  Capital,  Wellington,  population  43,638;  Auckland, 
34,213;  Dunedin,  24,879;  Christchurch,  17,538.  The  colony  consists  of  three 
islands — North  and  South  Islands  and  the  small  Stewart  Island.  A  few  groups 
of  small  islands  (Chatham,  Auckland  and  others)  are  politically  united  with  it.  The 
islands  are  mountainous,  the  loftiest  peak  being  Mount  Cook,  in  South  Island 
(12,349  feet).  The  climate  is  oceanic,  but  the  loftier  mountains  are  snowclad,  af- 
fording a  rich  supply  of  water  to  the  broad  valleys  and  the  plains  bordering  the 
sea.  The  mean  temperature  of  Auckland  is  68°  Fahr.  in  January  and  50°  Fahr.  in 
July.  All  the  climatic  conditions  make  New  Zealand  a  delightful  place  of  residence. 
The  leading  branch  of  farming  is  cattle  and  sheep  raising,  the  industry  being  stimu- 
lated by-the  luxuriant  meadows  and  prairies.  This  fine  natural  condition  for  the 
animal  industry  is  enlarged  by  the  cultivation  of  fodder  root  crops.  Sheep  (20,- 
200,000  in  1901)  are  most  numerous  in  the  southern  part  of  North  and  the  eastern 
part  of  South  Islands.  Wool  to  the  value  of  over  $15,000,000  was  exported  in 
1901-02.  More  cattle  are  raised  in  North  than  in  South  Island.  The  exports  of 
butter,  cheese  and  meats,  sent  refrigerated,  to  Europe  are  very  great.  The  common 
farm  crops  of.  the  temperate  zone  are  constantly  developing,  and  over  8,000,000 
acres  are  under  cultivation.  The  damp,  steep  western  slope  has  little  agriculture, 
but  the  warm,  dry  plains  of  the  east  of  South  Island  especially  make  ideal  farming 
lands.  A  great  amount  of  wheat,  linseed  and  oats  is  raised.  Phormium,  or  New 
Zealand  flax,  grows  wild,  and  is  used  for  making  paper,  cordage  and  some  fabrics. 
Gold  is  a  great  resource,  and  about  $250,000,000  of  the  metal  has  been  exported. 
Coal  and  petroleum  are  also  large  resources.  The  harbor  of  Lyttelton,  the  port 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD.  73 

of  Christchurch,  is  the  flooded  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano.  Most  of  the  foreign 
trade  is  with  Great  Britain,  wool,  meats,  gold,  grain,  etc.,  being  exported,  while 
manufactured  articles  make  up  the  imports.  Races,  chiefly  British  and  Maori. 
Religion,  Protestant.  Foreign  trade  (1902) — imports,  $56,633,575;  exports, 
$68,224,885. 

Nicaragua. — A  republic  of  Central  America.  Area,  47,800  square  miles; 
population,  429,310.  Between  10°  and  15°  north  latitude  and  82°  and  88°  west 
longitude.  Capital,  Managua,  population,  25,000;  Leon,  45,000.  Nicaragua  is 
the  largest  state  of  Central  America,  with  extensive  seaboard  on  both  the  Pacific 
Ocean  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  As  in  the  other  Central  American  states,  the 
population  is  largest  on  the  Pacific  slope. 

The  east,  covered  with  tropical  forests,  is  almost  wholly  unutilized,  but  a  few 
mining  centers  have  been  opened  among  them.  The  principal  export  product, 
coffee,  is  chiefly  grown  in  the  west  around  Leon.  The  banana  is  planted  for  ex- 
port only  along  the  Rama  or  Bluefields  River,  which  is  navigable  for  65  miles 
from  the  Caribbean.  Cattle  in  the  northwest  supply  many  hides  for  export. 
Bluefields  is  the  chief  Atlantic  port,  as  the  larger  steamers  can  no  longer  enter 
Oreytown  Harbor.  Corinto  (most  important  for  commerce)  and  San  Juan  del 
Sur  are  the  Pacific  ports,  and  a  railroad  connects  Corinto  with  the  large  interior 
towns.  Races,  Spanish-American  and  Indian.  Religion,  chiefly  Roman  Cath- 
olic. Foreign  trade  (1901)— imports,  $2,185,000;  exports,  $3,243,000. 

Norway. — Until  1905  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Sweden  and  Norway, 
when  she  seceded  from  this  union  and  became  an  independent  state  in  Septem- 
ber of  that  year.  Area,  124,454  square  miles;  population  (1900),  2,240,032; 
capital,  Christiania,  population,  227,626;  Bergen,  72,251;  Trondhjem,  38,180. 
Between  58°  and  71°  north  latitude  and  4°  and  31°  east  longitude.  Norway  is  a 
narrow  coast  country  on  the  north  Atlantic,  the  entire  shore  line  including 
fiords  and  large  islands,  being  about  12,000  miles  long.  It  forms  the  western 
half  of  the  largest  peninsula  in  Europe.  The  prevailing  westerly  winds,  warmed 
by  their  passage  over  the  Atlantic,  keep  the  fifty  ports  among  the  fiords  open  the 
year  around.  The  same  influence  makes  oats  a  flourishing  crop  at  64°,  and  bar- 
ley even  at  70°.  The  country  is,  however,  mountainous,  and  only  about  2  per 
cent,  of  the  land  is  cultivated,  so  that  the  grain  and  potato  crops  satisfy  only  one- 
half  of  the  domestic  consumption.  The  most  important  vegetable  resource  is 
the  forests,  which  cover  one-fourth  of  the  area;  the  timber  is  close- grained  and 
tough,  and  Norway  is  one  of  the  leading  lumber-producing  countries,  though  in- 
ferior in  this  respect  to  Sweden.  Sufficient  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared  to  meet 
the  home  requirements,  but  only  a  small  quantity  of  wool  is  exported.  The  most 
valuable  animal  product  is  derived  from  the  sea,  the  cod  and  herring  fisheries 
yielding  millions  of  dollars  every  year,  and  providing  a  large  part  of  the  food  of 
the  inhabitants.  About  50,000,000  cod  is  the  annual  catch  around  the  Lofoten 
islands,  and  the  less  valuable  herring  fishery  is  pursued  all  along  the  coast.  Min- 
ing is  not  important,  and  as  coal  is  wanting  and  the  population  is  sparse,  Norway 
could  scarcely  be  expected  to  take  a  prominent  place  in  manufactures.  The  wood 
industries,  however,  are  stimulated  by  abundant  water  power;  and  ship-building, 
brewing  and  distilling  are  important  industries.  Christiania,  Bergen  and  Trond- 


74  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE   WORLD. 

hjera  are  the  leading  ports.  Races,  Norwegians,  Finnish  and  Lapp.  Eeligion, 
chiefly  Lutheran  (the  state  church),  with  about  30,000  of  other  Protestant 
sects,  2,000  Catholics  and  700  Israelites.  Foreign  trade  (1902) — imports,  $77,- 
770,000;  exports,  $45,687.000. 

Orange  River  Colony. — Formerly  the  Orange  Free  State,  one  of  the  Boer 
republics,  but  attached  to  the  British  Empire  as  a  colony  at  the  close  of  the  Brit- 
ish-Boer war.  Area,  51,120  square  miles;  population,  about  200,000,  of  whom 
90,000  are  whites  (80,000  Boers)  and  the  remainder  native  blacks.  Between 
27°-31°  south  latitude  and  24°-30°  east  longitude.  It  stands  on  the  high  plateau 
of  inner  South  Africa,  has  a  temperate,  healthful  climate,  and  is  best  adapted 
for  stock  raising;  wheat  and  other  farm  crops,  however,  succeed  in  the  south. 
Capital,  Bloemfontein ;  population,  about  6,000.  This  town  is  coming  into  note 
as  a  health  resort,  and  a  considerable  number  of  invalids  from  Europe  are  living 
there.  The  Boers  are  thinly  scattered  over  the  plateau,  tending  their  sheep  and 
cattle.  Wool  is  the  chief  product,  and,  with  hides  and  ostrich  feathers,  forms 
the  bulk  of  the  exports.  Some  diamonds  are  mined,  but  the  mineral  industries 
are  little  developed.  Races,  Boers,  natives  of  Bantu  stock  and  British.  Re- 
ligion, Protestant.  No  recent  trade  statistics. 

Panama. — A  republic  of  North  America,  formerly  a  state  of  Colombia; 
declared  its  independence  in  1903.  It  occupies  Jhe  Isthmus  of  Panama  between 
Costa  Rica  and  Colombia,  with  a  length  of  about  480  miles,  and  varying  in 
width  from  37  to  110.  Area,  154.120  square  miles;  population,  about  400,000. 
Capital,  Panama,  population,  30,000;  Colon,  5,000.  The  mountain  backbone  is 
boldly  denned  in  the  western  part,  but  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  isthmus  there  is 
little  indication  of  systematic  arrangement  in  the  innumerable  hills  that  cover  it. 
About  150  short  rivers  flow  to  the  sea  from  the  northern  side,  and  more  than 
twice  that  number  drain  the  Pacific  slope.  The  largest  river,  Tuira,  is  navigable 
for  river  schooners  as  far  as  Santa  Maria  del  Real.  The  Bayamo,  discharging  into 
the  Gulf  of  Panama,  is  said  to  be  navigable  for  small  craft  120  miles.  Panama 
has  many  bays  and  ports  on  both  oceans,  but  most  of  them  are  in  primeval 
solitude.  There  is  no  country  behind  them  which  offers  an  easy  field  for  develop- 
ment. Thick  forest  covers  three-fourths  of  the  state,  and  five-eighths  of  it  are 
wild,  unoccupied  land,  the  remainder  being  only  rudely  utilized  by  the  inhabitants. 
The  climate  is  tropical  and  unhealthful.  The  products  are  tropical.  Along  the 
route  of  the  canal  to  be  built  by  the  United  States  a  zone  10  miles  wide  has  been 
placed  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  excepting  the  cities  of  Panama 
and  Colon,  so  that  the  United  States  may  carry  out  works  of  sanitation  and  have 
full  power  to  facilitate  the  building  and  protection  of  the  canal.  Panama  and 
Colon  are  the  only  important  ports.  The  people  represent  an  admixture  of 
Spanish,  negro  and  Indian  blood.  Their  trade  is  small,  the  great  traffic  cross- 
ing the  isthmus  being  almost  altogether  transit  trade.  Foreign  trade  (1898)  — 
imports,  $3,345,000;  exports,  $1,060,500. 

Paraguay. — A  republic  of  South  America.  Area,  97,726  square  miles; 
population  (1900),  635,571.  Between  22°-28°  south  latitude  and  55°-62°  west 
longitude.  Capital,  Asuncion,  population,  51,719;  Carapegua,  15,000;  Yilla 
Pilar,  14,400.  One  of  the  smallest  states  of  South  America;  it  does  not  touch 


INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD.  75 

the  sea,  but  the  Parana  and  Paraguay  rivers,  accessible  to  large  steamers,  give 
it  an  outlet  to  the  Atlantic.  It  is  mountainous  in  the  east,  has  a  sub-tropical 
climate,  agreeable  and  healthful,  and  receives  abundant  rainfall.  Most  of  the 
country  is  well  adapted  for  foreign  colonization.  The  western  part,  bordered  by 
the  Pilcomayo  River,  is  a  low,  warm  plain,  interspersed  with  forests  and 
especially  adapted  for  cattle  raising.  The  eastern  and  more  populous  region  is 
mainly  covered  with  dense  forests,  with  great -but  undeveloped  wealth  in  timber, 
interspersed  with  plains,  especially  towards  the  south,  which  are  splendidly 
adapted  for  cattle  and  farming.  The  vast  resources  of  all  kinds  are  still  little 
developed.  Rice,  sugar-cane,  maize  and  the  potato  are  the  chief  farm  crops, 
but  the  great  product  is  mate,  which  is  gathered  wild  in  the  woods,  and  is 
exported  to  the  amount  of  about  15,000,000  pounds  a  year.  It  is  sold  chiefly  to 
the  country  people  in  several  South  American  states,  and  is  regarded  as  an 
excellent  sustitute  for  tea  and  coffee.  Domestic  animals  are  chiefly  confined  to 
cattle  (about  1,000,000),  raised  mostly  for  local  consumption.  Iron,  kaolin  and 
salt  are  abundant  but  little  developed.  A  few  home  industries  supply  most  of 
the  demand  except  for  textiles  and  hardware.  A  railroad  (150  miles)  connects 
Asuncion  with  the  Uruguay  system.  Races  —  Spanish- American,  100,000 
Indians,  and  a  few  thousand  Brazilians  and  Europeans.  Religion,  Roman 
Catholic.  Foreign  trade  (1902)— imports,  $2,270,000;  exports,  $3,787,000. 

Persia. — A  despotic  monarchy  of  southwest  Asia.  Area,  628,000  square 
miles ;  population,  about  9,000,000.  Between  25°-39°  north  latitude  and  44°-62° 
east  longitude.  Capital,  Teheran,  population,  280,000;  Tabriz,  200,000;  Ispahan, 
70,000;  Meshed,  60,000;  Kerman,  60,000.  A  high  table-land,  more  than  a  third 
of  it  sandy  desert  and  salt  plain,  mountainous  in  the  west  and  north,  tillage  con- 
fined mainly  to  the  west  in  irrigated  valleys.  The  rainfall  is  largely  deficient ; 
climate  healthful,  but  very  warm  in  the  south.  The  Persian  monarch  assumes 
the  title  of  Shah-in-shah,  or  King  of  Kings,  and  his  government  is  an  Oriental 
despotism.  The  administration  is  corrupt,  but  the  adoption  of  European 
innovations  in  the  army,  etc.,  gives  an  air  of  progress.  The  real  wealth  is 
aborescent  culture,  particularly  fruits.  Cotton  cultivation  has  made  consider- 
able progress  and  the  fiber  is  now  a  small  export.  All  kinds  of  minerals  are 
found,  but  they  will  not  be  available  until  the  wrretched  communications  are 
improved  and  mining  regions  are  open  to  foreigners.  Most  turquoises,  how- 
ever, come  from  Persia.  The  Russian  influence  now  predominates  and  counter- 
balances the  English  influence  in  Afghanistan.  House  industries  supply  most 
of  the  local  demand,  and  the  Persians  are  famous  for  carpets  and  rugs, 
which  are  the  largest  manufactured  export.  Race,  Persian.  Religions,  chiefly 
Mohammedan  (Shiite  sect),  65,000  Christians,  19,000  Jews.  The  import  is  much 
larger  than  the  export  trade,  textiles,  glass,  sugar,  kerosene  and  tea  and  coffee 
being  large  purchases.  Opium,  cotton  and  wool,  silk,  carpets,  pearls  and  tur- 
quoises are  the  chief  exports.  Foreign  trade  (1902) — imports,  $23,703,000.;  ex- 
ports, $13,243,000. 

Peru. — A  South  American  republic.  Area,  690, 000  square  miles;  population 
(1896),  4,559,550.  On  the  Pacific  Ocean,  between  3°  and  18°  south  latitude  and 
70*  and  81°  west  longitude.  Capital,  Lima,  population,  113,000;  Callao,  48,118; 


76  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

Arequipa,  35,000;  Cuzco,  30,000.  It  has  a  long  littoral  on  the  ocean,  and  a 
part  of  its  territory  extends  to  the  east  of  the  Andes,  giving  access  to  the 
Atlantic  by  the  Amazon  River.  The  plain  between  the  Andes  ranges  and 
the  Pacific  is  a  desert,  with  ribbons  of  verdure  along  the  streams,  bordered 
by  irrigated  plantations  where  sugar-cane,  cotton  and  tobacco  are  raised. 
The  mountain  ranges  are  economically  important  for  their  vast  stores  of 
minerals  and  the  rivers  that  their  melting  snows  send  to  the  sea.  The  forests 
east  of  the  mountains  are  rich  in  rubber  and  cinchona  (quinine),  and  have 
splendid  prospects  for  tropical  agriculture,  as  yet  little  developed.  The  climate 
is  tropical.  Agriculture  is  limited  to  the  production  of  food  consumed  at  home, 
though  the  plantations  supply  some  export  cotton,  rice  and  coca  (from  which 
cocaine  is  derived),  and  also  sugar-cane  for  the  home  refineries.  Cattle  are 
numerous  among  the  foothills  of  the  Andes.  The  alpaca  supplies  much  wool, 
and  the  llama  is  used  chiefly  for  mountain  transportation.  Sugar  and  metals 
(silver,  copper,  quicksilver)  are  the  principal  exports,  sugar  being  the  most 
important.  Mining  is  restricted  by  the  necessity  of  carrying  ore  on  the  backs 
of  llamas  or  mules  to  the  railroads,  several  of  which  start  from  the  ports  to  the 
interior,  but  have  not  yet  reached  all  the  important  mining  districts.  Guano, 
once  a  great  export,  is  practically  exhausted.  Manufactures  are  confined  to  sugar 
refineries,  tanneries,  breweries  and  a  few  cotton  mills.  Callao  is  the  chief  port. 
The  largest  imports  are  textiles,  iron  and  steel  goods,  machinery  and  groceries. 
Eaces,  Spanish- American  and  Indian.  Keligion,  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign 
trade  (1902)— imports,  $21,062,000;  exports,  $17,938,000. 

Philippine  Islands. — A  large  island  group  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  under 
the  control  of  the  United  States.  Area,  about  15,000  square  miles;  population, 
7,635,000.  Between  5°-20°  north  latitude  and  117°-1270  east  longitude. 
Comprises  about  1,500  large  and  small  islands,  of  which  about  400  are  inhabited. 
The  largest  islands  are  Mindanao,  Luzon  (commercially  the  most  important), 
Panay,  Palawan,  Mindoro,  Negros,  Samar,  Leyte  and  Cebu.  Mountains  are 
the  chief  topographic  feature.  The  larger  islands,  especially  Luzon  and  Min- 
danao, have  broad,  well- watered  plains  which  are  tillable,  but  not  over  a  third 
of  the  area  is  adapted  for  cultivation.  The  climate  is  tropical,  the  night 
breezes  from  the  sea  affording  some  relief,  but  the  islands  are  not  healthful  for 
the  white  races.  The  population  is  densest  in  Luzon  and  the  Yisayas,  or  central 
islands.  Rice  is  the  chief  production,  but  in  poor  years  much  is  imported  from 
Cochin-China,  as  this  grain  is  the  chief  food.  Manila  hemp,  a  strong,  coarse 
fiber  derived  from  a  species  of  the  banana,  is  the  best  material  for  cordage  and 
sailcloth  and  is  a  large  export,  the  Philippines  being  as  yet  the  chief  source  of 
supply.  Tobacco  is  also  a  great  crop,  the  best  growing  in  northern  Luzon. 
It  is  sent  in  large  quantities  to  other  parts  of  Asia  and  some  of  the  western  lands. 
Sugar,  copra  and  cocoanuts  are  also  export  articles.  The  mineral  wealth  is  large 
but  undeveloped.  The  United  States  has  established  local  self-government 
wherever  practicable,  is  efficiently  protecting  life  and  property,  and  is  developing 
the  islands  by  establishing  agricultural  experiment  stations,  live  stock  and 
schools.  The  government  has  surveyed  the  coasts  in  the  interests  of  fishing,  and 
in  many  other  ways  is  doing  much  to  facilitate  progress.  The  Tagals  of  Luzon 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD.  77 

and  the  Visayas  are  more  advanced  in  civilization  than  the  other  natives,  who 
include  the  dwarf  Negritos  and  the  Mohammedan  Moros.  Races — Malayan, 
Negroid,  Chinese  and  whites.  Over  3,000,000  profess  Christianity  (Roman 
Catholic).  Imports  are  chiefly  cotton  goods,  hardware  and  machinery.  The 
imports  in  1902  were  $33,300,000;  exports,  $20,000,000. 

Portugal. — A  limited  monarchy  in  Europe.  Area  (with  Azores  and  Ma- 
deira), 34,038  square  miles;  population  (1900),  5,423,132.  Between  37°-42° 
north  latitude  and  6°-10°  west  longitude.  Capital,  Lisbon;  population,  35ti,009; 
Oporto,  167,955;  Braga,  24,202;  Funchal,  18,989.  Most  of  the  country  is  moun- 
tainous, being  occupied  by  the  western  slopes  of  the  Spanish  ranges.  The  plains, 
very  fertile,  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  west  coast  and  along  the  rivers. 
The  climate  is  oceanic,  and  high  degrees  of  temperature  are  registered  only  in  the 
south.  Rainfall  is  considerable,  especially  in  winter  and  spring.  The  rivers 
Tagos,  Douro,  Guadiana  and  Minho  are  generally  navigable  to  the  Spanish 
frontier.  Flax  and  southern  fruits  are  large  crops,  but  wine  growing  (con- 
spicuously Port  wine)  is  the  most  noted  branch  of  husbandry.  In  the  quality  of 
its  wine,  Portugal  is  one  of  the  leading  wine  countries.  The  chief  domestic 
animals  are  cattle,  mules,  asses  and  swine,  and  the  fisheries  along  the  coast  are 
very  productive.  Cork  derived  from  the  bark  of  a  species  of  oak  is  sent  to  all 
-civilized  lands.  The  country  is  highly  metalliferous,  but  the  mining  industry  is 
backward  and  the  mines  that  are  worked  are  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  foreigners. 
Sea  salt  obtained  by  evaporation  is  a  large  product.  The  manufactures  do  not 
meet  the  home  demand  either  in  quality  or  quantity,  though  textiles,  hats, 
leather,  porcelain,  ornaments,  etc.,  are  produced  in  Lisbon,  Oporto,  Braga  and 
some  other  towns.  Railroads  connect  all  the  chief  centers  of  population,  and 
domestic  trade  is  much  facilitated  by  rivers.  Much  produce  is  brought  in  from 
the  colonies,  the  other  leading  imports  being  grain,  cotton,  coal,  timber  and 
English  and  French  manufactures.  The  chief  exports  are  wine,  cork,  sea  salt, 
•copper  and  fish.  Race,  Portuguese.  Religion,  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign  trade 
(1902)— imports,  $60,044,000;  exports,  $30,710,000. 

Porto  Rico. — Colony  of  the  United  States  in  the  West  Indies.  The  island 
is  95  miles  long  and  35  broad,  with  an  area  of  3,668  square  miles.  Between 
17°-19°  north  latitude  and  65°-67°  west  longitude.  Population,  953,243. 
•Capital,  San  Juan;  population,  32,000.  Ponce,  on  the  southern  coast,  second 
largest  port,  population,  28,000.  The  central  range  of  mountains  extends 
nearly  the  entire  length  of  the  island,  condensing  the  moist  trade  winds, 
so  that  the  northern  half  of  the  island  has  abundant  rainfall,  while  the 
fields  of  the  southern  half  often  require  irrigation.  The  little  rivers  of  the 
north  for  this  reason  contain  more  water  than  the  southern  rivers,  and  many  small 
boats  carry  farm  produce  to  the  northern  coast  towns.  Alluvial  plains  skirt 
the  coast,  but  most  of  the  island  is  volcanic  mountains  and  foothills  of  lime- 
stone. The  tropical  climate  is  tempered  by  the  trade  winds.  The  island 
is  liable,  in  the  late  summer  and  autumn,  to  be  visited  by  severe  hurricanes 
which  sometimes  do  great  damage.  Most  of  the  farms  are  small,  and  four-fifths 
of  the  population  are  engaged  in  agriculture.  The  staple  products  are  coffee, 
sugar  and  tobacco.  The  coffee  shrubs,  grown  in  the  shade  of  banana  and  guava 


78  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

trees,  do  best  high  up  on  the  hills.  The  quality  of  the  bean  is  excellent,  and  the 
product  meets  with  ready  sale.  Over  150,000  acres  are  in  coffee,  and  80,000 
acres  in  sugar.  Sugar-cane  is  planted  chiefly  on  the  alluvial  coastal  plains.  The 
finest  tobacco  districts  (about  12,000,000  pounds  annually)  are  in  the  inland  moun- 
tain regions.  The  mineral  resources  are  not  large,  but  the  evaporation  of  brine 
supplies  the  island  with  about  10,000,000  pounds  of  salt  a  year;  and  magnetite, 
gold  and  copper  ore  are  found  to  some  extent.  Gypsum  is  very  useful  in  making 
stucco,  and  there  is  an  abundance  of  building  stone.  Most  roads  are  very  poor, 
but  the  United  States  has  connected  some  important  towns  with  good  roads. 
San  Juan  and  Ponce  are  connected  by  an  excellent  macadam  road,  and  sections 
of  a  coast  railroad  that  is  to  extend  around  the  island  are  in  operation.  Steamers 
ply  around  the  island  as  well  as  to  the  United  States,  Europe  and  neighboring 
islands.  Eaces,  589,426  whites,  363,742  negroes  and  mixed  breeds.  Keligion, 
chiefly  Roman  Catholic.  Nearly  all  the  trade  is  with  the  United  States.  In 
1903  the  island  sold  to  this  country  goods  worth  $11,057,195,  and  purchased  from 
us  commodities  valued  at  $12,246,225. 

Rumania. — A  limited  monarchy  of  eastern  Europe.  Area,  51,098  square 
miles;  population,  5,912,520.  Between  43°-48° north  latitude  and  23°-30°  east 
longitude.  Capital,  Bucharest;  population,  283,145;  Jassy,  78,611;  Galatz, 
63,987.  Most  of  the  country  is  a  well- watered  plain,  with  skirts  of  the  Car- 
pathians only  in  the  west  and  north.  The  Danube  is  the  chief  river,  navigable 
throughout,  but  of  its  tributaries  only  the  Pruth  is  navigable  for  steamers  and 
the  Sereth  for  rafts.  The  climate  is  continental  because  the  country  is  open  to 
the  northeast.  Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  people  are  farmers,  but  primitive 
methods  still  prevail.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  all  products  of  the  temperate 
zone,  and  even  rice,  are  raised.  The  chief  crops  are  maize  (the  staple  food), 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  tobacco  and  wine,  all  produced  in  excess  of  the 
demand.  More  maize  is  raised  than  in  any  other  country  of  Europe. 
Domestic  animals  are  raised  in  large  numbers.  The  mineral  wealth  is  great, 
but  only  petroleum  and  salt  are  worked  extensively.  Petroleum  by-prod- 
ucts are  used  for  fuel  on  railroads,  steamboats  and  in  factories.  Manufactures  are 
primitive,  and  all  the  finer  products  must  be  imported.  Flour  mills,  distiller- 
ies and  tobacco  works  are  the  chief  industries.  Foreign  capitalists  own  all  im- 
portant manufacturing  enterprises,  so  that  the  Rumanians  derive  little  profit  from 
them.  Races— Rumanians,  400,000  Jews,  200,000  Gypsies,  85,000  Slavs,  40,000 
Germans,  30,000  Hungarians,  8,000  Armenians.  Religions — Greek  Orthodox, 
Roman  Catholic,  Protestant,  Israelite  and  Mohammedan.  Grain  is  three-fourths 
of  the  exports,  and  imports  are  mainly  textiles  and  iron  goods.  Foreign  trade 
(1902)— imports,  $54,686,000;  exports,  $72,340,000. 

Russian  Empire. — An  absolute  monarchy.  Area,  Russia  in  Europe  (with 
Finland  and  Poland),  2,095,616  square  miles;  Caucasia,  180,843;  Central  Asia, 
1,548,825;  Siberia,  4,833,496;  total  empire,  8,660,395.  Population,  European  Rus- 
sia, 106,225,138;  totalpopulation empire,  138,930,319.  Between 36° and 76° latitude 
and  19°  and  170°  east  longitude.  Capital,  St.  Petersburg;  population,  1,439,375; 
Moscow,  1,038,591;  "Warsaw,  638,208;  Odessa,  405,041;  Helsingfors,  100,812; 
Tiflis,160,645;  Tashkent,  156,414;  Baku,  112, 253;  Tomsk,  52,430;  Irkutsk,  51,434. 


INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL  ^HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD.  79 

EUROPEAN  RUSSIA. — A  vast  plain  interrupted  only  by  the  Ural  range  in  the  east ; 
tundras  in  the  north,  immense  forests  further  south,  and,  to  the  south  of  the  Volga, 
the  Black  Earth  region,  the  granary  of  Russia,  with  boundless  grain  fields  and 
almost  no  trees;  further  south,  the  steppes,  divided  by  the  River  Don  into  a  well- 
watered  western  half,  with  countless  flocks  and  herds,  and  an  eastern  half  of 
dreary  steppes  and  sandy  deserts;  about  31,000  miles  of  navigation  whose  value 
is  impaired  by  the  fact  that  the  rivers  are  frozen  from  three  to  seven  months  in 
the  year.  The  Yolga  system  alone  has  10,000  miles  of  navigation;  canals  con- 
nect the  rivers  and  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas  with  the  Baltic.  There  are  many 
lakes  in  the  northwest,  chief  among  them  Ladoga,  the  largest  lake  in  Europe. 
Russia  has  all  climates  except  the  torrid;  polar  bears  live  in  the  north  and  lemons 
ripen  in  the  south.  The  rainfall  is  less  than  in  western  Europe. 

Three-fourths  of  the  people  live  by  farming,  which  is  still  conducted  after 
primitive  methods  except  in  the  west  (Poland,  Finland,  Baltic  provinces,  etc.), 
where  farming  is  intensive,  and  the  most  modern  ideas  as  to  fertilization,  machin- 
ery, etc.,  are  in  force.  In  the  greater  part  of  Russia,  however,  the  yield  of  crops 
would  be  more  than  doubled  if  better  methods  were  used.  As  it  is,  Russia  sur- 
passes any  other  European  state  in  the  amount  of  wheat,  rye,  flax  and  hemp  pro- 
duced. Russia  grows  two- thirds  of  the  oats  and  half  of  the  rye  of  Europe,  and  sup- 
plies about  four-fifths  of  the  flax  fiber  of  the  world.  The  export  of  grain  is  second 
only  to  that  of  the  United  States.  The  wealth  in  timber  is  enormous,  and  in  spite 
of  poor  forestry  and  wretched  roads,  the  timber  exports  are  very  large.  Stock 
farming  is  one  of  the  great  sources  of  wealth.  Animal  raising  is  most  developed 
in  the  western  regions  of  progressive  agriculture,  but  flourishes  on  the  greatest 
scale  on  the  broad  steppes  of  the  southwest,  where  the  animals  live  all  the  year  in 
the  open  air.  The  fisheries  are  important.  Russia  is  one  of  the  most  favored 
countries  in  its  mineral  wealth.  Gold,  silver,  platinum,  iron,  copper,  zinc  and 
salt  are  the  principal  minerals  worked.  The  coal-fields  are  extensive,  but  the 
annual  yield  is  less  than  the  quantity  required. 

In  manufacturing,  Russia  has  made  great  progress,  the  policy  of  the  govern- 
ment being  to  supply  home  needs  with  home  product.  The  most  important  in- 
dustries are  textiles,  metal,  leather,  soap,  sugar  and  spirits.  Nearly  ail  other 
branches  are  developed,  but  much  importation  is  still  necessary.  Russia  sells  farm 
products  to  western  Europe  and  imports  manufactured  goods,  and  sells  Russian 
manufactures  in  Asia,  importing  raw  materials.  Thus  it  is  an  important  connect- 
ing link  between  two  great  quarters  of  the  world.  Railroads  connect  the  prin- 
cipal towns,  but  wagon  roads  are  poor  and  traveling  is  easiest  by  sledges  in  win- 
ter. About  half  the  exports  are  cereals  and  flour,  and  the  leading  imports  are 
materials  for  manufacture,  besides  machinery  and  the  finer  textiles.  Races  in 
the  empire— 100,000,000  Russians,  9, 500, 000  Poles,  14,500,000  Mongolians,  5,200,- 
000  Jews,  1,400,000  Germans,  2,500,000  Caucasians,  1,000,000  Rumanians.  Re- 
ligions—89,600,000  Greek  Orthodox,  11,400,000  Roman  Catholics,  6,200,000  Pro- 
testants, 1,200,000  other  Christians,  5,200,000  Israelites,  13,900,000  Mohamme- 
dans. Foreign  trade  (1901)— imports,  $305,614,000;  exports,  $392,215,000. 

RUSSIA  IN  ASIA. — For  administrative  purposes  the  entire  empire  is  divided  into 
general  governments,  which  are  subdivided  into  governments  and  districts.  Cau- 


80  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WOKLD. 

casia  is  mostly  mountainous,  save  for  wide  steppes  north  of  the  Caucasus  range 
and  fertile  valleys  and  a  part  of  the  Armenian  table-land  in  the  south.  The  cli- 
mate south  of  the  mountains  is  cooler  than  north  of  them.  Caucasia  is  rich  in 
timber  and  farm  products,  especially  wine,  but  domestic  animals  are  more  im- 
portant than  agriculture.  The  mineral  wealth  is  great,  but  petroleum  is  the  most 
valuable.  The  wells  near  Baku  supply  Russia  and  a  good  part  of  Asia  with  pe- 
troleum, which  also  sells  freely  in  western  Europe.  The  native  manufactures 
barely  meet  home  demands,  but  Tiflis  and  Erivan  are  distinguished  for  carpets, 
embroideries  and  weapons.  The  trade  statistics  are  included  in  Eussia's  com- 
merce. No  trade  statistics  are  issued  for  the  rest  of  Russian  Asia. 

The  River  Yenisei  divides  Siberia  into  a  western  and  level  half  and  an  eastern 
and  more  mountainous  half.  Siberia  has  long,  hard  winters  and  short,  hot  sum- 
mers. The  Obi,  Irtish,  Yenisei,  Lena  and  Amur  rivers  are  important  means  of 
transportation,  and  many  vessels  ply  on  Lake  Baikal.  The  western  half  of  Sibe- 
ria is  more  fertile  and  thickly  populated,  and  is  chiefly  devoted  to  agriculture,  the 
ordinary  grains,  potatoes,  onions,  melons,  etc.,  thriving  in  southwestern  Siberia. 
The  same  region  contains  millions  of  sheep  and  cattle.  The  mineral  wealth  is 
considerably  developed  and  widely  distributed,  gold,  silver  and  graphite  being 
most  worked.  The  enormous  coal-field  in  central  Siberia  and  the  extensive  de- 
posits of  iron,  lead  and  copper  are  still  almost  untouched.  Manufacturing  is  chiefly 
confined  to  tanning,  brick-making,  ore  smelting,  etc.  The  trans-Siberian  rail- 
road and  the  rivers  supply  large  transportation  facilities,  and  all  the  principal 
town's  are  connected  by  post  routes.  The  principal  commercial  centers  are 
Tomsk,  Irkutsk,  Yakutsk  and  Kiakhta. 

Russian  Central  Asia  includes  the  Kirghiz  steppes  and  Turkestan,  the  latter 
being  of  most  economic  importance.  The  commercial  center  of  Turkestan  is  the 
flourishing  city  of  Tashkent.  Cotton  is  the  largest  export,  and  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment endeavors  to  develop  the  cultivation  of  this  crop  to  the  largest  extent. 
Over  800,000,000  pounds  of  clean  fiber  are  sent  annually  to  the  Russian  mills. 
Russian  Central  Asia  has  exterior  trade  relations  only  with  Russia,  Siberia  and 
Persia,  Indian  and  Afghan  merchants  also  bringing  some  British  commodities 
into  the  markets.  The  trans-Caspian  and  the  Orenburg  railroads  are  greatly 
stimulating  the  economic  growth  of  these  possessions. 

Salvador. — A  republic  of  Central  America.  Area,  7,225  square  miles ;  popu- 
lation, 915,512.  Between  13°  and  14°  north  latitude  and  87°  and  89°  west  longitude. 
The  smallest  of  American  countries,  with  a  more  dense  population  than  any  other 
Central  American  state.  Capital,  San  Salvador;  population,  59,544.  Salvador 
extends  along  the  Pacific  coast  with  a  sea  frontage  of  170  miles.  The  state  is 
noted  for  its  coffee,  of  which  it  has  the  largest  export,  except  Guatemala.  There 
are  hundreds  of  sugar  plantations.  Live  stock  does  not  fill  the  demand  for 
domestic  animals,  and  mining  is  unimportant.  Most  exports  are  shipped  through 
La  Libertad  and  Acajutla.  Flour,  textiles  and  hardware  are  the  chief  imports, 
half  of  which  come  from  England.  Races — Spanish- American,  Indians  and 
mixed  bloods.  Foreign  trade  (1902)— imports,  $2,624,000;  exports,  $3,926,000. 

San  Marino. — An  independent  state  in  Italy.  Area,  about  24  square  miles; 
population,  9,535.  Situated  about  44°  north  latitude  and  12°  25'  east  longitude. 


INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD.  81 

Capital,  San  Marino.  This  old  and  famous  city  stands  on  the  summit  of  Monte 
Titano,  about  20  miles  in  an  air  line  from  the  Adriatic.  San  Marino  has  existed 
as  a  sovereign  state  from  the  fourth  century  A.D.,  but,  though  independent,  it 
accepts  a  subsidy  from  Italy  and  claims  the  special  protection  of  the  king.  The 
republic,  however,  is  not  democratic,  as  the  citizens  have  no  vote.  The  supreme 
power  is  vested  in  a  council  of  60  members,  the  title  of  Councilor  being  hereditary 
in  the  family,  and  when  a  family  becomes  extinct  the  council  elects  another  coun- 
cilor. Kace,  Italian.  No  trade  statistics. 

Santo  Domingo. — Negro  republic  occupying  the  east  end  of  Haiti.  Area, 
18,045  square  miles;  population,  600,000.  Between  17°-20°  north  latitude  and 
68°-72°  west  longitude.  Capital,  Santo  Domingo;  population,  about  17,000; 
Puerto  Plata,  the  most  important  port,  4,500.  The  country  is  mountainous  and 
inland  communications  are  poor.  The  leading  industries  and  exports  are  sugar, 
tobacco,  cacao  and  divi-divi,  valued  for  its  pods,  containing  tannin  and  gallic  acid, 
used  to  tan  leather  and  dye  cloth.  The  U.  S.  buys  nearly  all  the  exports  and  sup- 
plies about  half  the  manufactures  purchased.  Race,  Spanish-speaking  negroes. 
Trade  (1901)— imports,  $2,987,000;  exports,  $5,224,000. 

Servia. — A  limited  monarchy  of  south  Europe.  Area,  19,050  square  miles; 
population,  2,624,318.  Between  43°-45°  north  latitude  and  19°-23°  east  longitude. 
Capital,  Belgrade;  population,  69,790;  Nish,  24,593.  The  country  is  covered 
with  mountains.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Danube,  Save  and  Morava.  The 
climate  is  continental  (very  cold  in  winter  and  warm  in  summer).  The  soil  is 
fertile  and  the  mountains  are  covered  with  forests  of  oak  and  other  trees. 
Nine-tenths  of  the  people  are  farmers,  and  Servia  produces  more  maize,  wheat, 
barley,  rye  and  oats  than  it  needs.  Domestic  animals  are  in  large  numbers,  and 
live  stock,  especially  hogs,  are  exported.  The  country  is  rich  in  minerals,  but 
defective  means  of  communications  retard  development.  Manufactures,  in  spite 
of  high  protective  duties,  have  attained  no  high  level,  and  all  fine  articles  are 
imported,  while  the  house  industries  supply  most  needs  of  the  peasantry.  Servia 
has  400  miles  of  railroads,  and  its  chief  rivers  also  promote  domestic  trade. 
Most  of  the  foreign  trade  is  with  Austria-Hungary,  with  which  Servia  is  con- 
nected by  natural  trade  routes.  The  railroad  from  Paris  to  Constantinople  and 
Salonica  passes  through  the  country,  giving  Servia  two  outlets  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  chief  exports  are  grain  and  live  stock,  and  the  imports  are  manu- 
factured goods  and  petroleum.  Over  six-sevenths  of  the  people  are  Servians. 
Religions — Roman  Catholic,  Israelite  and  Mohammedan.  Foreign  trade  (1902) 
—imports,  $8,650,000;  exports,  $13,920,000. 

Siam. — An  absolute  monarchy  of  South  Asia.  Area,  200,000  square  miles; 
population,  6,320,000.  Between  12°-21°  north  latitude  and  97°-106°  east  longi- 
tude (also  includes  the  narrow  strip  of  the  Malay  peninsula  to  4°  north  latitude). 
Capital,  Bangkok;  population,  600,000;  Chantabun,  30,000.  Chiefly  plains  with 
mountains  in  the  northwest,  climate  tropical.  The  larger  part  of  the  people  live 
in  the  wonderfully  fertile  valley  of  the  Menam,  upon  whose  rise  every  year  the 
quantity  of  the  rice  crop  depends.  Thus  the  river  bears  much  the  same  relation 
to  Siam  that  the  Nile  does  to  Egypt.  Siam  is  one  of  the  great  rice-producing 
countries,  the  exports  being  surpassed  only  by  those  of  Burma  and  Cochin* 
6 


82  INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

China.  "While  the  southernpart  is  a  flat  delta  land  producing  little  but  rice,  the 
great  forests  of  the  northern  mountain  regions  contain  teak  and  other  timbers. 
Teak  is  floated  down  the  Menam  to  Bangkok,  and  this  valuable  timber,  and 
rice,  are  the  two  great  export  commodities.  Most  of  the  commerce  is  in  the 
hands  of  Chinese  merchants.  Bangkok  has  steamship  connections  with  Europe, 
but  the  larger  vessels  cannot  cross  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Menam,  and  much 
freight  is  therefore  lightered  between  the  ships  and  the  capital,  25  miles  up  the 
river.  The  king  and  his  government  are  progressive;  considerable  machinery  is 
being  introduced  and  the  country  is  increasing  in  prosperity.  Kaces — 2,000,000 
Siamese,  2,000,000  Chinese,  1,000,000  Malay,  500,000  Laos.  Eeligion,  chiefly 
Buddhist.  Trade  (1903)— imports,  $17,989,858;  exports,  $20,477,714. 

Spain.  — •  A  limited  monarchy  in  Europe.  Area,  197,670  square  miles;  pop- 
ulation, 18,909,086.  Between  36°  and  44°  north  latitude  and  10°  west  to  4°  east 
longitude.  Capital,  Madrid;  population,  539,585;  Barcelona,  533,000;  Valencia, 
213,550;  Seville,  148,315.  The  Spanish  peninsula  is  a  high  plateau,  largely 
covered  by  mountains.  The  center  of  Spain  is  occupied  by  the  two  extensive 
table-lands  of  Old  Castille  and  New  Castille,  dry  and  unfertile  and  better  suited 
for  cattle  raising  than  for  tillage.  Spain  also  contains  two  great  lowland  valleys 
or  plains,  the  Aragonese  plain,  in  the  north,  and  the  Andalusian  plain,  in  the 
south,  which,  like  the  level  coast  districts,  are  among  the  most  fertile  lands  of 
Europe.  But  they  are  small  in  extent  compared  with  the  table-lands.  The 
rivers  are  deficient  in  water  most  of  the  year  and  of  little  value  either  for  shipping 
or  agriculture.  Many  canals  were  built  centuries  ago,  chiefly  to  irrigate  arid 
districts,  but  they .  were  permitted  to  fall  into  ruin.  The  government  is  now 
repairing  the  canals  and  building  new  ones  to  serve  both  irrigation  and  naviga- 
tion. The  climatic  conditions  of  most  of  South  Europe  are  found  only  in  the 
coast  districts  and  Andalusia.  The  bare  interior,  owing  to  its  high  elevation, 
suffers  from  winter  and  summer  extremes  of  temperature,  and  with  the  sea  on 
three  sides,  Spain  is  deficient  in  rainfall  and  much  irrigation  is  necessary. 

About  seven-eighths  of  the  people  are  farmers,  few  of  whom  practise  advanced 
methods  of  tillage.  The  best  watered  and  cultivated  province  is  Valencia,  and 
several  other  provinces  are  carefully  tilled.  Apples,  pears  and  southern  fruits 
thrive;  in  good  years  the  northern  provinces  export  cereals  and  the  southern 
provinces  maize  and  rice.  Olive  oil  is  a  very  large  product,  and  the  vine  is  the 
most  important  branch  of  Spanish  husbandry.  Most  Spanish  wines  are  inferior, 
but  the  warm  climate  of  the  south  produces  the  famous  wines  of  Malaga,  Alicante 
and  Jerez  (sherry).  The  finest  pastures  are  near  the  Atlantic,  in  the  northwest, 
but  over  16,000,000  sheep  graze  on  the  central  table-land  and  are  driven  down  to 
lower  districts  in  winter.  Spain  is  very  rich  in  coal,  iron,  copper,  lead  and  quick- 
silver, but  most  of  the  mining  is  done  by  foreign  capitalists  and  the  ore  is  ex- 
ported raw.  Only  a  few  hundred  tons  of  iron  are  produced  in  Spanish  foun- 
dries. The  northeast  province  of  Catalonia  (especially  the  Barcelona  district)  is  the 
home  of  the  greater  part  of  Spanish  manufactures.  The  cotton  and  metal  indus- 
tries are  most  prominent  there,  and  cotton,  flour  and  olive  oil  are  the  leading 
manufactures.  Minor  industries  are  limited  by  the  poverty  of  the  people,  who 
have  small  purchasing  power.  The  trade  of  Spain  consists  mainly  of  the  export 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD.  83 

of  raw  produce  and  the  import  of  most  of  the  manufactures  consumed.  Barcelona 
is  the  chief  port  as  well  as  the  leading  mercantile  city,  and  Valencia,  Alicante,  Ma- 
laga, Cadiz,  Santander  and  Bilbao  are  also  important  ports.  Races,  chiefly  Span- 
ish. Religion,  Roman  Catholic.  Foreign  trade  (1902) — imports,  $175,487,000; 
exports,  $161,297,000. 

Sweden. — Until  September,  1905,  the  eastern  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Sweden  and  Norway,  when  Norway  seceded  from  this  union  and  became  an  in- 
dependent state.  Area,  172,876  square  miles;  population,  5,221,291.  Between 
55°  and  70°  north  latitude  and  12°  and  24°  east  longitude.  Capital,  Stockholm,  popu- 
lation, 311,043;  Goteborg,  135,314;  MalmS,  67,384.  Sweden  is  mountain- 
ous, especially  in  the  west,  but  much  flatter  than  Norway.  The  only  plain 
of  any  size  belongs  to  Sweden;  it  extends  along  the  east  coast  to  the  south  of 
the  peninsula,  and  includes  the  fertile  region  of  Gothland,  the  best  agricultural 
part  of  Sweden.  The  climate  is  colder  than  that  of  Norway,  and  though  half  of 
the  land  is  unproductive,  three-fourths  of  the  people  are  farmers.  Sweden  pro- 
duces more  cereals  than  Norway,  and  exports  grain,  chiefly  oats,  though  it  im- 
ports rye  and  rye  meal  and  also  wheat  flour.  Much  live  stock  is  exported.  The 
government  has  done  a  great  deal  for  the  intelligent  development  of  dairy  farm- 
ing and  the  general  improvement  of  agriculture.  The  fisheries  are  far  inferior  to 
those  of  Norway,  and  do  not  even  supply  the  home  demand.  The  timber  trade, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  of  great  importance,  and  the  shipments,  largely  to  England 
and  France,  are  the  chief  exports.  Sweden  is  poorly  supplied  with  coal,  but  has 
larr'e  deposits  of  iron  ore  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  A  railroad  has  been  built 
from  the  mines  to  the  Atlantic  to  carry  the  ore  to  England  and  Germany. 
Sweden  is  industrially  dependent  on  other  countries,  as  coal,  population  and  capi- 
tal are  wanting.  The  best-developed  manufactures  are  the  iron  and  wood  indus- 
tries; Swedish  matches  are  everywhere  famous.  Linen  manufactures  meet  the 
domestic  demand,  but  the  woolen  and  cotton  factories  supply  only  a  part  of  the 
home  need.  Stockholm  and  Goteborg  are  the  chief  ports,  and  there  is  a  large 
coastal  trade  and  ad  equate  connections  with  foreign  countries.  South  Sweden  has 
a  fine  canal  system,  and  railroads  connect  the  chief  towns  with  one  another  and 
with  Norway.  Races,  Swedish  and  229,000  foreigners.  Religions — 1,716,548 
Protestants,  183,828  Catholics,  8,069  Israelites.  Foreign  trade  (1902) — imports, 
$134,685,000;  exports,  $105,154,000. 

Switzerland. — A  European  republic.  Area,  15,976  square  miles;  popu- 
lation 3,325,023.  Between  45° and  48° north  latitude  and  6°  and  11° east  longitude. 
Capital,  Berne,  population,  68,958;  Zurich,  169,410;  Basel,  120,897;  Geneva, 
110,954.  Three-fourths  of  Switzerland  are  covered  with  mountains,  and  most 
of  the  inhabitants  live  on  an  undulating  plain  between  the  Jura  Mountains,  in 
the  north,  and  the  Alps,  in  the  south.  Several  passes  afford  wagon  roads  over 
the  mountains  to  Austria  and  Italy;  and  three  tunnels,  the  Aiiberg  (to  Austria), 
the  St.  Gotthard  and  Simplon  (to  Italy),  give  uninterrupted  connections  across 
Switzerland  with  the  regions  north  and  south.  Owing  to  the  Alps,  the  republic 
is  well  supplied  with  Avater,  and  while  the  streams  are  useless  for  navigation, 
they  give  abundant  power  for  industrial  purposes.  The  lakes  furnish  important 
navigation.  Scenery  is  one  of  the  great  resources  of  Switzerland  and  attracts 


84  INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 

over  1,000,000  foreigners  a  year.     The  climate  of  the  valleys  is  temperate  and 
the  rainfall  is  very  large. 

The  mountainous  character  of  the  country  gives  agriculture  a  subordinate 
place,  and  only  four  cantons  produce  enough  food  for  the  home  demand.  The  im- 
portation of  grain,  live  stock  (for  meat)  and  potatoes  is  therefore  very  large.  The 
vine  is  largely  cultivated,  but  the  wine  product  does  not  mee'  the  demand.  The 
meadow  and  mountain  pastures  have  developed  stock  farming  to  a  considerable 
extent,  and  the  dairy  products  are  famous,  three-fifths  of  the  cheese  being  ex- 
ported to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Minerals  are  of  little  importance,  and  as  there 
is  no  coal,  the  manufacturing  industries  would  be  at  a  great  disadvantage  if  it 
were  not  for  the  water  power.  As  it  is,  this  natural  and  abundant  supply  of  power, 
together  with  the  intelligence  of  the  working  classes,  has  made  Switzerland  one 
of  the  chief  manufacturing  countries  of  the  world. 

Over  500,000  persons  are  engaged  in  the  production  of  cottons,  silk,  watches, 
jewelry,  machinery,  wooden  and  straw  goods  and  other  wares.  The  products 
are  chiefly  those  that  are  distinguished  for  high  quality  of  workmanship,  and  Swiss 
manufactures  find  markets  among  all  the  leading  nations.  Though  Switzerland 
is  far  from  the  sea,  the  railroads  to  northern  and  southern  ports  serve  her  com- 
mercial relations.  Races — two-thirds  German,  one-fif  t,h  French,  Italian  and  im- 
migrants from  other  parts  of  Europe.  Religions — 1,716,548  Protestants,  1,183,- 
828  Roman  Catholics;  8,069  Israelites.  Trade  (1902)— imports,  $217,803,000^ 
exports,  $168,741,000. 

Transvaal  Colony. — Formerly  the  South  African  republic,  but  made  a  col- 
ony by  Great  Britain  as  a  result  of  the  British-Boer  war.  Area,  119,139  square 
miles;  population,  1,100,000,  of  whom  290,000  are  whites  (200,000  Boers). 
Between  22°-28°  south  latitude  and  24°-32°  east  longitude.  Capital,  Pretoria, 
population,  10,000;  Johannesburg,  102,714  before  the  war.  The  colony  is  on 
the  high  interior  plateau  of  South  Africa,  4,000  to  6,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
mountains  are  chiefly  in  the  east,  south  and  north,  with  a  wide  spread  plain  in 
the  interior  and  smaller  plains  scattered  through  the  country.  The  plateau  is 
higher  in  the  south  than  in  the  north,  and  the  climate,  temperate  in  the  south  and 
center,  is  tropical  in  the  north.  No  rivers  are  available  for  navigation.  The  plains 
are  the  home  of  most  of  the  Boers,  who  tend  their  live  stock,  chiefly  cattle,  on 
large  farms;  vegetable  gardens  and  cattle  raising  for  beef  are  developed  chiefly 
in  the  south  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  large  towns. 

In  1904  the  largest  diamond  ever  discovered  was  found  in  a  mine  opened  in 
1903  near  Johannesburg.  Gold,  however,  is  the  greatest  mineral  resource,  and 
the  mines  are  scattered  through  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the  colony.  The 
region  that  dwarfs  them  all  is  the  Witwatersrand  (The  Rand),  on  which  Johannes- 
burg stands.  It  is  a  rise  of  ground,  the  water  parting  between  two  drainage  areas, 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  wide  and  125  miles  long.  On  about  30  miles  of  this  nar- 
row strip  $80,000,000  of  gold  were  mined  the  year  before  the  war, 
surpassing  the  yield  of  any  other  country.  The  industry  was  at  a  standstill 
during  the  war,  but  has  rapidly  revived,  the  product  in  1904  being  about 
$70,000,000.  Gold  is  practically  the  only  export.  Railroads  extend  to 
Johannesburg  from  Cape  Colony,  Natal  and  Portuguese  East  Africa.  Races — 


INTERNATIONAL    GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE    WORLD.  85 

Boers,  other  whites,  chiefly  British,  native  blacks  and  Chinese  laborers  in  the 
mines. 

Turkey. — Despotic  monarchy  of  southeast  Europe.  Area,  62,744  square 
miles  ;  area  empire,  1,111,741  square  miles  (not  including  Egypt).  Population 
(Turkey  in  Europe),  24,028,900;  population  empire,  about  30,000,000.  Capital, 
Constantinople,  population,  1,106,000;  Salonica,  105,000;  Adrianople,  81,000. 
Turkey  in  Europe  is  mountainous,  as  is  the  rest  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  with 
many  valleys  but  no  large  plains.  The  Maritza  and  other  plains  of  no 
great  extent  are  extremely  fertile.  The  climate  is  extreme  in  the  interior,  but 
mild  on  the  ^gean  Sea.  Turkey's  resources  might  make  her  one  of  the  richest 
countries  in  Europe,  but  she  is  one  of  the  poorest.  This  is  due  to  oppressive 
taxation,  which  consumes  one-third  of  the  harvests,  wretched  government,  few 
roads  and  a  degraded  standard  of  civilization. 

The  soil,  however,  in  spite  of  bad  tillage,  produces  more  than  the  country  con- 
sumes. Maize,  wheat,  wine  of  poor  quality,  tobacco  and  fruits  are  the  chief  crops. 
Stock  farming  more  than  meets  the  home  demand,  though  little  is  done  to  improve 
domestic  animals.  The  country  is  very  rich  in  ores,  but  there  is  practically  no 
mining.  Constantinople  and  Salonica  have  a  few  silk  factories  and  steam  mills, 
but  there  is  little  industry  outside  the  household  manufactures.  Turkey  is  there- 
fore an  important  market  for  "Western  manufactures,  paying  for  them  with  nat- 
ural productions.  Races — 70  per  cent.  Turks,  Greeks,  Albanians,  etc.  Religions — 
50  percent.  Mohammedan,  42  percent.  Greek  Orthodox,  5  per  cent.  Roman  Cath- 
olic. Foreign  trade  (1899)— imports,  $117,134,000;  exports,  $59,072,000. 

A  few  railroads  in  Asiatic  Turkey  are  increasing  the  importance  of  Turkey  in 
Asia.  The  most  important  city  of  Asia  Minor  is  Smyrna,  second  only  to  Con- 
stantinople in  the  Levant.  Asia  Minor  is  famous  for  Smyrna  rugs  and  carpets, 
and  the  hair  (mohair)  of  the  Angora  goat.  Syria  sends  wheat  and  wool  abroad, 
chiefly  through  the  port  of  Beirut,  which  is  connected  with  Damascus  by  rail. 
Another  railroad  extends  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  is 
building  a  railroad  from  Damascus  to  Mecca,  the  great  goal  of  the  Mohammedan 
pilgrims.  Mesopotamia  has  steam  communication  with  India  and  England  through 
Basra,  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Cereals  and  dates  are  exported,  dates 
going  to  all  civilized  lands.  The  land  transport  of  Mesopotamia  is  by  mule  or 
camel.  The  district  of  Yemen,  on  the  Red  Sea,  is  a  fertile  Arabian  coast-land  pro- 
ducing Mocha  coffee. 

Tutuila. — A  small  island  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Sainoan  Archipelago. 
It  came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States  in  1899.  Manua  and  Rose 
islands,  small  bits  of  land  to  the  east  of  Tutuila,  are  included  in  the  colony. 
Tutuila  is  of  volcanic  origin,  less  than  60  square  miles  in  extent,  produces  copra 
for  export,  and  has  in  Pago-Pago  one  of  the  finest  landlocked  harbors  in  the 
Pacific.  It  is  a  coaling  station. 

United  States  of  America. — A  North  American  republic.  Its  territory 
south  of  Canada  lies  between  24°-49°  north  latitude  and  66°-125°  west  longitude. 
Its  area,  exclusive  of  the  Territories  of  Alaska  and  Hawaii  (which  see),  is  2,970,- 
230  square  miles  of  land  and  55,370  of  water;  total  area,  3,025,600  square  miles. 
The  land  surface  aggregates  1,900,947,200  acres.  The  total  area,  including  the 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD.  87 

Territories,  but  exclusive  of  the  colonial  possessions,  is  3,622,213  square  miles. 
Population  (1904),  81,752,000  (76,303,387 in  1900).  Capital,  Washington,  B.C., 
population,  293,217;  New  York,  3,716,149;  Chicago,  1,873,880;  Philadelphia, 
1,367,716;  St.  Louis,  612,279;  Boston,  594,618;  Baltimore,  531,313;  Cleveland, 
414,915;  Buffalo,  381,403;  San  Francisco,  355,919;  Pittsburg,  345,043;  Cincin- 
nati, 332,934;  Milwaukee,  312,736;  Detroit,  309,653;  New  Orleans,  300,625; 
Newark,  265,394;  Jersey  City,  219,462;  Louisville,  215,402;  Minneapolis, 
214,112. 

The  continental  part  of  the  republic  embraces  nearly  one-half  of  North  Amer- 
ica, has  all  climates  excepting  the  tropical,  and  can  therefore  raise  practically  all 
the  vegetable  products  of  the  temperate  and  subtropical  zones.  Having  also  large 
mineral  resources  and  enormous  development  of  manufactures,  it  is  practically 
self-sufficient,  actually  needing  to  import  very  little  excepting  raw  products  from 
tropical  lands. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  country  is  a  great  central  plain  (Mississippi  Valley), 
bordered  on  the  east  by  mountains  of  no  great  elevation  (Appalachians),  and  on 
the  west  by  mountains  (Rocky  Mountains  and  Pacific  coast  ranges)  and  plateaus 
of  high  elevation;  with  narrow  eastern  and  broad  southern  coastal  plains,  but 
no  coastal  plain  on  the  Pacific;  with  over  14,000  miles  of  river  navigation,  nearly 
all  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  country,  and  with  inland  seas  providing  the  cheapest 
transportation  known,  excepting  on  the  oceans.  These  topographic  features 
have  had  profound  influence  in  distributing  industries  and  shaping  development 

The  Atlantic  coast  is  low  and  has  all  the  prominent  types  of  natural  harbors, 
New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  the  Chesapeake  Bay  ports,  Savan- 
nah and  Charleston,  and  Portland,  Me.,  being  most  prominent.  The  Pacific  coast 
is  high  and  rocky,  with  only  four  great  harbor  centers,  San  Diego  Bay,  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay,  the  river  port  of  Portland  and  scores  of  harbors  or  harbor  sites  in 
Puget  Sound,  one  of  the  greatest  natural  harbors  in  the  world. 

The  eastern  coastal  plain,  covered  with  debris  eroded  from  the  Appalachians, 
is  a  region  of  fruits,  vegetables,  cereals,  timber  and  pottery  clays,  finding  mar- 
kets in  the  greatest  cities  of  the  country  to  the  north ;  the  southern  coastal  plain 
is  a  land  of  cotton  and  great  lumber  industries,  the  plain  extending  far  up  the  Mis- 
sissippi Yalley.  The  Great  Valley  is  the  preeminent  agricultural  zone,  with  to- 
bacco north  of  the  cotton  and  sugar-cane  zone,  the  corn  belt  north  of  the  tobacco 
area,  winter  wheat  in  the  corn  belt,  and  a  great  area  of  spring  wheat  north  of  it. 

The  semi-arid  and  arid  plains  begin  to  rise  midway  between  two  oceans  and 
gradually  merge  with  the  mountain  plateau.  The  plains  are  a  vast  field  of  the 
grazing  industry,  and  irrigation  projects  now  in  progress  will,  it  is  expected,  re- 
claim for  tillage  50,000,000  acres  on  these  plains  and  the  plateaus  west  of  them. 
The  mountains  yield  most  of  our  minerals,  have  large  grazing  resources,  and  con- 
serve from  the  melting  snows  and  glaciers  the  water  to  be  used  for  irrigation. 

On  the  whole,  the  country  west  of  the  100th  meridian  has  too  little  rainfall 
for  profitable  farming  without  irrigation  except  along  the  northern  three-fifths 
of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  country  east  of  the  100th  meridian,  having  nearly  14 
inches  of  annual  rainfall,  is  the  great  agricultural  area.  The  Great  Lakes  provide 
the  cheapest  system  of  interior  navigation  in  the  world.  The  railroad  system 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD.  89 

has  larger  development  than  in  any  other  country,  and  as  the  topography  favors 
easy  gradients,  it  is  possible  to  haul  long  freight  trains,  with  the  result  that  freight 
rates  are  comparatively  cheap.  This  has  helped  the  United  States  to  compete  with 
or  excel  other  nations  in  exports  of  farm  products,  chiefly  cereals  and  meats,  to 
foreign  markets. 

All  human  activities  are  developed  in  the  United  States  on  an  enormous  scale. 
The  total  wealth  of  the  country  is  estimated  at  §94,300,000,000.  In  1900  there 
were  5,739,657  farms,  and  domestic  animals  Avorth  $2,228,123,134;  in.  1903  the 
wool  product  was  287,450,000  pounds;  wheat,  637, 821, 835 bushels;  corn,  2,244,- 
176,925  bushels;  cotton,  10,727,555  bales  (average  weight  of  a  bale,  430  pounds); 
and  cane-sugar,  293,397  tons.  The  corn,  wheat  and  cotton  crops  are  the  largest  in 
the  world,  and  the  United  States  supplies  over  three-fourths  of  the  world's  cotton. 

The  United  States  is  the  first  nation  in  the  world  in  the  value  of  its  manu- 
facturing industries.  In  1900  its  iron  and  steel  products  were  worth  $835,- 
759,034;  cotton  manufactures,  $339,200,320,  and  total  value  of  manufactures, 
$13,039,279,566. 

Coal  is  very  widely  distributed,  so  that  the  great  manufacturing  centers  from 
Boston  to  Nebraska  are  not  compelled  to  bring  their  coal  from  great  distances,  but 
can  utilize  neighboring  supplies.  The  only  long  movement  in  coal  is  in  anthra- 
cite, which  is  mined  only  in  eastern  Pennsylvania  and  has  markets  far  west.  The 
iron  ore  is  derived  chiefly  from  mines  along  the  south  and  west  shores  of  Lake 
Superior  and  is  carried  600  to  800  miles  to  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  smelters,  which 
supply  the  coke  and  limestone  for  smelting.  Transportation  by  the  Great  Lakes 
is  so  cheap  that  the  United  States  can  compete  with  Great  Britain  in  iron  produc- 
tion, though  many  British  iron  mines  are  on  the  coal-fields.  Only  in  the  Bir- 
mingham district  of  Alabama  has  the  United  States  yet  developed  iron  mining 
where  coal  and  limestone  are  found  in  the  same  field.  The  country  is  the  greatest 
producer  of  pig  iron  and  steel  (1902,  pig  iron,  17,821,307  tons;  steel,  14,947,250 
tons).  For  many  years  the  United  States  has  usually  led  the  world  in  gold  pro- 
duction ($74, 425, 340  in  1903);  silver  production  in  1903,  $73, 076, 106;  coal  (largest 
output  in  the  world),  319,068,224  tons;  petroleum,  4,219,376,154  gallons.  The 
country  is  also  among  the  largest  producers  of  copper,  zinc,  lead  and  many  other 
minerals.  The  total  value  of  the  mineral  production  in  1902  was  $1,260,649,265. 

For  many  years  the  manufactures  little  more  than  sufficed  for  home  needs,  but 
in  recent  years  the  United  States  has  entered  the  list  of  nations  seeking  foreign 
markets  for  its  manufactured  products.  Though  the  price  of  labor  is  high,  the 
invention  of  many  forms  of  labor-saving  machinery  and  the  high  intelligence  and 
skill  of  the  working  people  now  enable  the  United  States  to  compete  in  many 
foreign  markets  with  numerous  products  of  the  low-priced  labor  of  Europ^^^ 

There  is  a  large  admixture  of  races,  as  immigration  from  Europe  to  the  United 
States  has  been  far  greater  than  to  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Of  the  total 
population  in  1900,  about  10,000,000  were  of  foreign  birth,  Germany,  Ireland, 
England  and  Scotland  supplying  the  largest  number.  In  1900  there  were 
66,890,199  whites,  8,803,535  persons  of  African  descent,  and  145,282  Indians 
on  reservations.  All  religious  beliefs  may  be  freely  held;  all  sects  of  Protestants 
;are  represented,  and  Roman  Catholics  are  a  large  element. 


92  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   OF  THE   WORLD. 

American,  Indian  and  about  40,000  foreign  whites.  Religion,  chiefly  Roman 
Oatholic,  with  a  few  thousand  Protestants  and  Israelites.  Foreign  trade  (1898) — 
imports,  $8,560,000;  exports,  $14,900,000. 

Zauzibar. — An  island  sultanate,  under  British  protection,  off  the  tropical 
coast  of  East  Africa.  Area,  about  1,000  square  miles;  population,  210,000.  Chief 
town  and  port,  Zanzibar,  in  which  a  large  part  of  the  population  is  centered. 
Zanzibar  is  an  entrepot  for  the  collection  of  commodities  destined  for  shipment 
from  the  neighboring  islands  and  coast  regions  to  foreign  countries  and  for  the 
local  distribution  of  foreign  imports.  Races — chiefly  negro,  with  about  10,000 
Arabs  and  7,000  Jews.  Foreign  trade  (1901) — imports,  $5,520,000;  exports, 
.$5,850,000. 

PARTITION  OF  THE  CONTINENTS. 

Upon  our  Globe  appears,  as  well  as  in  this  classification  of  countries,  depen- 
dencies, colonies  and  islands,  a  few  sections  marked  as  states  of  apparent 
importance  from  their  size  not  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  descriptive  text.  In 
such  cases  the  land  named  has  no  importance  or  influence  in  the  world's  affairs, 
and  is  almost  entirely  undeveloped  and  occupied  by  uncivilized  natives,  with  very 
few  civilized  people. 

The  following  list  shows  the  Division  of  the  Continents  among  the  various 
Countries  of  the  "World: 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

British  Honduras.  Honduras. 

Canada.  Mexico. 

Costa  Rica.  Newfoundland  (Great  Britain). 

•Cuba  (Continental  Island).  Nicaragua. 

Greenland    "  "  Panama. 

Guatemala.  Salvador. 

Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo  (Continental  Island).         United  States  (with  Alaska). 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Argentine  Republic.  Ecuador. 

Bolivia.  French  Guiana. 

Brazil.  Paraguay. 

British  Guiana.  Peru. 

Chile.  Uruguay. 

Colombia.  Venezuela. 
Dutch  Guiana. 

EUROPE. 

Andorra.  Montenegro. 

Austria-Hungary  (with  Bosnia-Herzegovina).  Netherlands. 

Belgium.  Norway. 

Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Rumelia.  Portugal. 

Denmark.  Rumania. 

France.  Russia. 

German  Empire.  Servia. 

Greece.  Spain. 

Italy  (with  Sicily  and  Sardinia).  Sweden. 

Liechtenstein.  Switzerland. 

Luxemburg.  Turkey  in  Europe. 

Monaco.  United  Kingdom  (with  islands  in  British  waters) 


IttTEltNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    IIISTOKY    OF   TUB   WOULD. 


93 


Afghanistan. 

Arabia. 

Asiatic  Turkey. 

Baluchistan. 

Bhotan. 

Bokhara  and  Khiva. 

Chinese  Empire. 

Corea. 

Hong  Kong  (British). 

Abyssinia. 

Abyssinian  Soraaliland. 

Algeria  (Prance). 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. 

Angola  (Portuguese). 

Ashanti  (British). 

Basutoland  (British). 

Bechuana  Protectorate  (British). 

British  Central  Africa  Protectorate. 

British  East  Africa  Protectorate. 

British  Somaliland. 

Cameroon  (German). 

Cape  Colony  (British). 

Congo  Free  State. 

Dahomey  (French). 

Egypt  (Turkey). 

Eritrea  (Italy). 

French  Congo. 

French  Guinea. 

French  Somaliland. 

French  Sudan. 

Gambia  (British). 

German  East  Africa. 


ASIA. 

India  (British). 

Indo-China  (French). 

Japan  (with  Port  Arthur). 

Nepal. 

Persia. 

Russia  in  Asia,  Siberia,  etc. 

Siam. 

Straits  Settlements  (British). 

Sumatra. 


AFRICA. 


German  Southwest  Africa. 

Gold  Coast  (British). 

Ivory  Coast  (British). 

Lagos  (British). 

Liberia. 

Morocco. 

Natal,  with  Zululand  (British). 

Nigeria  (British). 

Orange  River  Colony  (British). 

Portuguese  East  Africa. 

Portuguese  Guinea. 

Rhodesia  (British). 

Rio  de  Oro  (Spanish). 

Rio  Muni  (Spanish). 

Sahara  (mostly  to  France). 

Senegal  (France). 

Sierra  Leone  (British). 

Somali  Coast  Protectorate  (Italy). 

Transvaal  Colony  (British). 

Tripoli  (Turkey). 

Tunis  (France). 

Uganda  Protectorate  (British). 

Zanzibar  Protectorate  (British). 


States  and.  Dependencies. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES: 

Lord  Howe  Island. 

Norfolk  Island. 
QUEENSLAND: 

British  New  Guinea. 


AUSTRALIA. 
COMMONWEALTH  OF  AUSTRALIA. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA: 
Northern  Territory. 

TASMANIA: 

Macquarie  Islands. 

VICTORIA. 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA. 


Colonial  Possessions. — Most  large  nations  have  acquired  colonial  posses- 
sions in  order  to  secure  resources  of  raw  material,  new  outlets  for  their  manufac- 
tures and  special  advantages  for  their  traders.  They  disburse  large  sums  in  the 
development  of  their  colonies,  and  the  results  often  show  that  the  money  is  prof- 
itably expended.  Thus  most  of  the  trade  of  Cape  Colony  is  with  Great  Britain. 
Canada  gives  a  preferential  tariff  to  the  mother  country.  Nearly  all  the  trade  of 
the  Dutch  East  Indies  is  with  the  Netherlands.  The  trade  of  Algeria  and  Tunis 
with  France  is  greater  than  with  all  other  countries  together. 

European  countries  were  so  impressed  with  the  value  of  colonial  possessions 
that  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  they  scrambled  for  all  the  African  territory  they 


94 


INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD. 


could  secure  until  nearly  the  whole  continent  was  parceled  out  among  them. 
Great  Britain  and  Germany,  in  recent  years,  have  acquired  most  of  the  un  appro- 
priated  islands  in  the  Pacific.  Here  is  a  list  of  the  Colonial  Possessions  of  the 
various  nations: 

Denmark. 


Greenland 
coasts). 
Iceland. 


(south   part   of   east   and  west 


St.  Croix, 
St.  John, 
St.  Thomas. 


West  Indies. 


France. 


AFRICA  : 

Algeria. 
Dahomey. 
French  Congo. 
French  Guinea. 
French  Somaliland. 
Ivory  Coast. 
Senegal. 
Tunis. 

AMERICA: 
French  Guiana. 
Guadeloupe. 
Martinique. 
St.  Pierre  and  Miqueion. 

ASIA  : 
Annam. 
Cambodia. 
Cochinchina. 

French  India.     (The  towns  of  Shandernagar, 
Karikal,  Pondichery,  Mahe,  and  Yanaon.) 


Laos. 
.  Tonkin. 

INDIAN  OCEAN: 
Comoro  Islands. 
Gloriosa  Islands. 
Kerguelen  Islands. 
Madagascar  (with  Diego  Suarez    Nossi-B§, 

St.  Marie  de  Madagascar). 
Mayotte. 

New  Amsterdam  Islands. 
Reunion. 
St.  Paul  Islands. 

PACIFIC  OCEAN: 
Clipperton  Islands. 
Futuna  and  Alofi. 
Gambier  Islands. 
Marquesas  Islands. 
New  Caledonia  and  Loyalty  Islands. 
Tahiti  and  Windward  Islands. 
Tabuai  Islands. 
Wallis  Archipelago. 


AFRICA: 
Cameroon. 
German  East  Africa. 
German  Southwest  Africa. 
Togo.  - 

ASIA: 
Kiau-chau. 


Germany. 

PACIFIC  OCEAN: 
Bismarck  Archipelago. 
Caroline  Islands. 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  Land. 
Marianne  or  Ladrone  Islands  (except  Guam), 
Marshall  Islands. 
Samoa. 
Solomon  Islands  (part). 

Great  Britain. 


AFRICA: 
Basutoland. 
Bechuana  Protectorate. 
British  Central  Africa  Protectorate. 
Cape  Colony. 
East  Africa  Protectorate. 
Gambia. 
Gold  Coast. 
Lagos  with  Yoruba. 


Natal  with  Zululand. 

Nigeria. 

Orange  River  Colony. 

Rhodesia. 

Sierra  Leone. 

Somaliland  (British). 

Transvaal  Colony. 

Uganda  Protectorate. 

Zanzibar  Protectorate. 


INTERNATIONAL  GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY    OF   THE    WORLD. 


95 


AMERICA: 

Bahama  Islands. 

British  Honduras. 

Canada. 

Cayman  Islands. 

Jamaica. 

Labrador. 

Newfoundland. 

Pedro  and  Morant  Cays. 

Turks  and  Caicos  Islands. 

ASIA: 

Araboin  Cay. 
Bahrein  Islands. 
British  North  Borneo. 
Brunei. 
Ceylon. 

Christmas  Islands. 
Hong  Kong. 
Johore. 

Kamaran  Islands. 
Keeling  Islands. 
Labuan. 

Malay  Protected  States. 
Maldive  Islands. 
Sarawak. 
Sprattley  Island. 
Straits    Settlements    (Singapore,     Malacca, 

PeHang). 
The  Indian  Empire. 

Aden. 

Andaman  Islands,   Nicobar   Islands,   Ba- 
luchistan. 

Arabian  Protectorate. 

Sokotra. 

The  leased  Territory  of  Hong  Kong. 
Weihaiwei. 

ATLANTIC  OCEAN: 
Ascension  Island. 
Bermuda. 
Falkland  Islands. 
St.  Helena. 
Tristan  da  Cunha. 

AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  SOUTH  SEA: 
Australian  Commonwealth. 

INDIAN  OCEAN: 
Admiralty  Island. 
Aldabra  Island. 


Cargados  Islands. 
Chagos  and  Oil  Islands. 
Mauritius. 
Rodriguez. 
Seychelles. 

LEEWARD  ISLANDS: 
Anguilla. 
Antigua. 
Barbuda. 
Dominica. 
Montserrat. 
Nevis. 
Redonda. 

St.  Christopher  (St.  Kitts). 
Virgin  Islands. 

MEDITERRANEAN  : 
Cyprus. 
Gibraltar. 
Malta. 

NEW  ZEALAND: 
Antipodes  Island. 
Auckland  Islands. 
Bounty  Island. 
Campbell  Island. 
Chatham  Islands. 
Cook  Islands. 
Ducie  Island. 
Ellice  Islands. 
Fanning  Island. 
Fiji  Islands,  with  Rotumah, 
Gilbert  Islands. 
Kermadec  Islands. 
Phoenix  Islands. 
Pitcairn  Island. 
Santa  Cruz  Islands. 

Solomon  Islands  (Guadalcanar,  Malaita,  etc.). 
Tonga  Islands. 
Union  Islands. 

WINDWARD  ISLANDS: 
Barbados. 
British  Guiana. 
Granada. 
Santa  Lucia. 
Sombrero. 
St.  Vincent. 
Tobago. 
Trinidad. 


Italy. 


Aussa  and  Danakil. 
Eritrea. 

DUTCH  EAST  INDIES: 
Amboina. 
Atjeh. 


Somali  Coast  Protectorate. 


Netherlands,  The. 

Bali  and  Lombok. 

Banca. 

Billiton. 


96  INTERNATIONAL   GEOGRAPHICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   WORLD. 

Celebes.  West  Borneo. 

Java  and  Madura.  Western  New  Guinea. 

Lampongs. 

Menado  (on  Celebes  Island)  DUTCH  WEST  INDIES: 

Palembang.  Aruba. 

Riau — Lingga  Peninsula.  Buen  Ayre,  or  Bonaire, 

South  and  East  Borneo.  Curasao. 

Sumatra  East  Coast.  Saba. 

Sumatra  West  Coast.  St.  Eustatius. 

Ternate.  St.  Martin  (half  of  which  belongs  to  France). 

Timor  (west  half).  Surinam,  or  Dutch  Guiana. 

Portugal. 

.  ASIA  (PORTUGUESE  INDIA): 

Damao. 

Angola.  Diu. 

Cape  Verde  Islands.  Goa. 

East  Africa  (or  Portuguese  East  Africa).  Macao. 

Guinea,  Portuguese.  Timor  (east  half),  with  Cambing  (or  Pulo 

Sao  Thoma  (St.  Thomas)  and  Principe.  Cambing). 

Spain. 

Annabon.  Rio  Muni. 

Fernando  Po.  Rio  de  Oro. 

United  States. 

Aleutian  Islands.  Marcus  Island. 

Baker  Island.  Midway,  Wake  and  Johnstone  Islands. 

Guam.  Philippine  Islands. 

Hawaiian  Islands.  Porto  Rico. 

Rowland  Island.  Tutuila  (Samoa). 


- 


PUBLISHERS'  STATEMENT 


E  state  with  satisfaction  that  the  International  Flat- 
Globe  and  International  Geographical  History  give 
in  a  concise,  yet  exhaustive  form,  an  up-to-date 
presentation  of  world-wide  geography  that  has  no 
equal ;  and  further  that  they  comprise  a  new,  perfect 
and  advanced  system  of  geographical  review  and 
reference  that  has  never  existed  before,  that  is  easy 
to  understand  and  convenient  to  use. 

^1  The  International  Flat-Globe  illustrates  the  whole  world  and  indi- 
cates upon  its  surface  in  their  proper  relationship,  the  oceans  and  seas, 
continents,  countries  and  islands,  the  continental  systems  of  great 
railroads,  rivers,  lakes  and  mountains;  also  latitude,  longitude,  the 
time  around  the  world,  steamship  and  cable  routes,  prevailing  winds, 
ocean  currents,  etc. 

<J  The  International  Geographical  History  explains  the  subject  of 
world-wide  geography  from  the  points  of  physical  geography  and  the 
phenomona  of  nature;  mathematical  geography,  with  its  interesting 
data ;  and  national  and  political  geography,  which  enters  into  the  divi- 
sions of  continents,  into  numerous  sections  of  governmental  control ; 
with  frequent  reference  to  the  Globe  in  connection  with  the  proper 
and  clear  understanding  of  these  subjects. 

<I  This  Globe  and  History  mark  a  new  departure  in  the  consideration 
of  the  geography  of  the  world,  and  they  cover  fully  the  illustration, 
explanation  and  description  of  the  earth  upon  which  we  live. 
<J  Maps,  atlases,  charts  and  the  geographical  parts  of  encylopaedias  are 
fragmentary  and  disconnected  geographical  presentations,  whereas  the 
International  Globe  and  International  Geographical  History  cover 
completely  the  subject  of  world-wide  geography  from  all  points. 
§  The  History  of  the  Ages,  and  of  the  1,500,000,000  people  who  inhabit 
the  earth,  and  their  activities  are  shown  in  the  national  and  political 
sub-divisions  of  the  earth,  the  development  of  their  resources,  ocean  and 
land  transportation  facilities  and  means  of  inter-communication,  and  the 
industrial,  commercial  and  agricultural  activities  of  the  races.  All  these 
subjects  are  clearly  presented  in  this  production. 

<J  The  editor  of  this  Globe  and  History  is  Mr.  Robert  E.  Peary;  his  name 
is  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  their  perfection.  All  the  geographical  facts 
contained  in  both  the  Globe  and  History  are  the  very  latest.  They 
are  taken  from  the  most  authoritative  sources. 


A    FEW    OPINIONS 


A  GEOGRAPHER 

*J  Dr.  Jacques  W.  Redway,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society, 
author  of  "  Natural  Geographies,"  says  :  "I  pronounce  the  Interna- 
tional Flat-Globe  a  success  as  a  Globe.  It  certainly  does  make  a 
simple,  valuable  device  for  the  Study  of  Geography." 

A  GEOGRAPHICAL  AUTHOR  AND  EDITOR 

^f  For  thirty  years  my  profession  has  been  the  compilation  and  editing 
of  geographical  works.  Your  Flat-Globe  and  Geographical  History, 
as  a  complete  system  of  world-wide  geographical  review  and  reference, 
is  a  marvel  of  simplicity,  convenience  and  utility. 

DAVID  M ACDONALD 

Late  Director  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  Australasia 
A  GEOGRAPHICAL  PUBLISHER 

^f  Mr.  S.  Y.  Gillan,  Publisher  of  "Lessons  in  Mathematical  Geog- 
raphy," "Tracing  and  Sketching  Lessons  in  Geography,"  and  the 
"Western  Teacher,"  Milwaukee,  says:  "Your  invention  is  a  splen- 
did idea,  and  is  certainly  a  satisfactory  Globe  of  the  world.  I  can  and 
will  recommend  it  for  general  use." 

AN  ASTRONOMER 

<I  "  Your  new  '  Flat-Globe  '  of  the  World  is  a  wonderful  improvement 
over  the  old  style  Globe.  I  had  rather  have  it  for  my  use  than  any 
other  plobe  made  at  any  price.  It  will  surely  have  a  phenomenal  sale. 
With  best  wishes."  p.  E.  ORMSBY,  Chicago 

A  BANKER 

€J  The  Nassau  Bank,  New  York :  "I  have  one  of  your  Globes  in 
my  home  and  prize  it  very  highly.  My  son  uses  it  and  finds  it  very 
convenient  and  of  great  benefit  to  him.  I  would  not  part  with  the 
one  I  have  for  many  times  its  cost,  providing  I  could  not  get  another.'* 

EDWARD   EARL 

AN  ATTORNEY 

|d  "  The  International  Flat-Globe  has  been  of  great  interest  and  service 
in  my  office.      I  could  not  get  along  without  it.      Every  one  who  has 
seen  it  is  pleased  with  it.    It  should  be  in  every  business  place  and  home. 
CONRAD    R.  SCHMITT,  New  York 

A  GREAT  AMERICAN  NEWSPAPER 

€|f  "  The  International  Flat-Globe  pictures  the  world  at  a  glance.  It 
is  expressive  and  convenient."  — Inter  Ocean ,  Chicago 


